Propionate serves as an anaplerotic energy substrate even in the environment of muscle ischemia evident with intense muscular exertion or disease states. Free carnitine is also produced via this mechanism thereby replenishing, to some degree, muscle carnitine levels that tend to decline with increasing conversion to long chain acylcarnitines

during transport of acyl-CoAs into the find more mitochondrial matrix. Deficits in carnitine stores exhibited during high intensity anaerobic work may be reduced as replenishing free carnitine levels facilitates the production of short chain acylcarnitines as a buffering process that reduces lactate accumulation. This model may provide enhanced fatty acid oxidation at rest and during submaximal exercise to the point of lactate threshold. Complementary anaerobic benefits are provided with high intensity exercise via enhanced

blood flow related to increased NO synthesis, the selleck chemical addition of an anaplerotic energy source in propionate. Anaerobic power is enhanced by buffering Coenzyme A by carnitine thereby preventing the elevation of Acetyl-CoA levels which would generally hinder the activity of the PDC thereby stimulating the production of lactate. Thus, at rest and during moderate intensity exercise GPLC appears to enhance fatty acid oxidation and aerobic metabolism while it increases anaerobic power with reduced lactate production during high intensity exercise. many This simplistic mechanistic model is based on numerous previously established functions of the total carnitine pool, in conjunction with the unique characteristics of GPLC as reported in recent investigations, as well as from the present study. The 4.5 gram dosage of GPLC used in this study was similar to that applied by www.selleckchem.com/products/pexidartinib-plx3397.html Bloomer [13], but that study applied the daily dose over a one week period. Furthermore, the present study did not measure

NOx, thus it is not possible to establish the role of NO in the findings of the present study. In fact, the only means of assessing reactive hyperemia of the lower extremities in the present study was the thigh girth as determined using a basic Gulick measuring tape. Based on the magnitude of NOx increases reported by Bloomer’s group, it was hypothesized that GPLC may produce increases in local blood flow which might be measurable using a basic girth assessment. However, the increase in thigh girth was not significantly different between study conditions. Thus, it is uncertain whether the performance benefits observed in the present study were related to increased levels of NO or other mechanisms of action. Certainly, the present investigation should be replicated, with examination of varying dosages over extended periods of time, with valid outcome measures that indicate critical metabolic pathway activity. The present study is seen as proof of concept that oral GPLC administration can increase peak anaerobic power output with reduced lactate accumulation.

When assaying for competence related phenotypes in the two other biofilm models, the effects of quorum sensing were different. The second microtiter biofilm model, more frequently used in pneumococcal research, relies on incubation of high numbers of stationary-phase cells

[24]. In this model, the addition of synthetic CSP was not a necessary, however strains unable to synthesize or sense CSP were found to attach to a lower extent the surface compared to the wt. By microscopic analysis we verified that this phenotype was not due to a reduction in the number of single attached VX-680 molecular weight cells, but it was due to a reduction in number and size of surface attached microbial aggregates. Microcolony formation, already described as an important phenotype in pneumococcal biofilm [7, 15, 24], could be restored in comC mutant strains by addition of synthetic CSP to levels similar to wt strains. The fact that none of the well known genes directly or indirectly regulated by competence has a direct link to attachment of biofilm underlines that effects seen in planktonic exponentially

growing competent cells differ from the biofilm stabilisation phenotype seen here [36]. There PD0332991 ic50 are parallelisms this website between our findings and recent work in S. mutans where biofilm formation was also linked to the ComCDE system [37], although if genomic and genetic data indicate that the S. mutans ComDE is orthologous to the S.

pneumoniae BlpRH system and does not directly control transformation [33, 38]. Competence quorum sensing defects in S. mutans were found to determine reduction in biofilm biomass, and addition of CSP partially restored wt biofilm architecture [39]. Dipeptidyl peptidase In contrast to S. pneumoniae these ComCD-dependent phenotypes were correlated to the initial stages of biofilm development [39]. Biofilm microcolonies are examples of non-homogeneous microbial populations. In this context, our data indicate a significant effect of the competence quorum sensing system on the capacity of pneumococci to form these aggregates. Such aggregation behaviour in a non-homogeneous population is consistent with the observed clumping in a mixture of competent and non-competent cells which depends on the release of DNA into the medium [40, 41]. Correlation of competence, cell clumping and DNA release fit well with the presence of DNA in the extracellular matrix of attached pneumococci and to subsequent sensitivity of pneumococcal biofilm to DNAse [23, 24]. The release of DNA into the extracellular matrix through the endogenous CSP pathway has also been described to have a significant impact on biofilm biomass in S. mutans [42]. We lack a precise molecular characterisation of the events and we cannot exclude that some of the effects may be indirect and determined through an unknown regulatory pathway.

In contrast up regulation of genes encoding cation transport systems (mnhB_1, mnhC_1, mnhD_1, mnhF_1, mnhG_1) was found. Figure 7 Heatmap of RNA Sequencing comparing JKD6159 ( aryK inactive) to JKD6159_AraC r ( aryK intact). RNA seq was performed in duplicate from stationary phase cultures. This heatmap, clustered on APR-246 expression profiles, was created based on log2 transformed counts to identify consistent changes in expression profiles between HKI 272 strains. To be included in the heat map, genes were required to have at least 1000 counts (reads), totaled over all samples, where the standard deviation of log2 expression differences had to exceed two. The heatmap highlights

significant aryK-dependent changes, in particular genes involved in the regulation of central metabolic functions. Here, we have clearly demonstrated that agr is the major “”on-off”" switch Selleckchem Sorafenib for virulence in ST93 CA-MRSA, but we also found that other genetic changes are impacting virulence gene regulation in a clone-specific manner. We speculate that the inactivation of aryK may have been an evolutionary response by ST93 CA-MRSA to modulate or fine-tune the amount of Hla and other factors required for host persistence. There are six AraC/XylS family regulators in S. aureus (SA0097, SA0215, SA0622, SA1337, SA2092, SA2169; S. aureus

strain N315 locus tags). Two of these, Rbf (SA0622) and Rsp (SA2169) have been studied and demonstrated in other S. aureus strains to regulate biofilm formation and modulate expression of surface-associated proteins [24,

25, 31]. In contrast, we found that aryK increases Hla expression and virulence, acting as a positive regulator of virulence by directly or indirectly upregulating exotoxin expression, without an apparent effect on agr expression in stationary phase. Conclusions In this study, we have obtained insights into the genetic basis for the increased virulence of ST93 by using a combination of comparative and functional genomics. We have demonstrated the key role of Hla and agr and shown how an additional novel regulatory gene, aryK by a loss-of-function point mutation, is modulating virulence in this clone. Quantification of exotoxin expression in a larger collection of ST93 strains demonstrated that the findings in strain JKD6159 are relevant to the majority of Parvulin the ST93 population isolated from around Australia as exotoxin expression in JKD6159 is representative of most of the ST93 population. Our study highlights the power of comparative genomics to uncover new regulators of virulence but it also shows the complex nature of these changes even in closely related bacterial populations. Careful strain selection, detailed comparative genomics analyses, and functional genomic studies by creating multiple genetic changes in one strain will be required to gain a full insight into the genetic basis for the emergence and hypervirulence of ST93 CA-MRSA.

None of the sequences cluster closely with Nitrosospira clade, this may be due to the low abundance of ammonia oxidizers or PCR and DNA extraction biases. The agricultural soil being sulphur poor system does not significantly support the sulphur/sulphide oxidizing bacterial populations. All the cbbL positive cultured AZD2171 isolates were closely related to different species of the genus Bacillus. A RuBisCO find more like protein (RLP), form IV RuBisCO was previously isolated and studied from

B. subtilis and this RLP is involved in methionine pathway [44]. However, the form IC gene sequences from the isolates in this study are different from the form IV RLP gene ykrW of B. subtilis. Recent studies suggested that RLP and photosynthetic RuBisCO might have evolved from the same ancestral protein [45]. Presence of form IC genes in cultured Bacillus sp. was also reported by Selesi et al. (2005) [24]. But a clear proof, whether the Bacillus isolates are completely functional autotrophs, is not yet documented.

Further analysis of evolutionary and functional relationships between RLPs and RuBisCO may explain the presence of these form IC genes in Bacillus. The Elafibranor datasheet amplification of form IA cbbL genes in SS2 soil only by Spiridonova et al. (2004) [34] primers proves the primer selectivity bias. This could be supported by suppression of autotrophic bacterial growth by readily available carbon sources in case of agricultural soil [46, 47]. Role of variation in other physico-chemical properties between different sites on form IA gene diversity also cannot be underestimated. In our study,

most of form IA clone sequences did not cluster closely with the sequences from known sulphide oxidizing lithotrophs. This reflects that limited attention has been paid to the role of lithoautotrophs Teicoplanin in coastal saline environments. Further isolation attempts using a variety of different media are necessary to isolate this mostly unrevealed diversity in these soils. The 16S rRNA gene sequence analysis was aimed at providing further information about the total bacterial communities. If 16S rRNA gene sequences were more than 95% similar to that of known autotrophic bacteria that genus is recognized for some form of chemolithoautotrophy and photoautotrophy [48]. Sequences inferred to be from potential CO2 fixing chemolithotrophs from groups Alpha- and Betaproteobacteria were highly abundant in the agricultural soil whereas Gammaproteobacteria, Deltaproteobacteria, Actinobacteria and phototrophic Chloroflexi dominated saline soils. Among the Betaproteobacteria two OTUs (22 clones, AS) were very closely related to Limnobacter thiooxidans (99%), which can grow chemolithoheterotrophically by oxidation of thiosulphate to sulphate [49].

It means that disease severity such as fever, WBC count either uncomplicated or complicated appendicitis did not Geneticin mw affect the timing of surgery. In addition, there was no significant difference in the ratio of accompanied by appendicoliths between two groups. In our study, the presence of appendicoliths

Apoptosis inhibitor did not affect the timing of surgery unlike with results of recent studies [24, 25]. There were no significant differences in time to soft diet and length of postoperative hospital stay between two groups. There were also no significant differences in all parameters regarding hospital costs between two groups. Especially, there was no significant difference in complication rate including surgical site infection. One patient in group A and one patient in group B readmitted due to postoperative intra-abdominal abscess within 30 days. These results were similar with previous other studies [7, 19, 20]. Therefore delayed appendectomy is safe similar with early appendectomy. Moreover, mean WBC count

at postoperative first day of group B was lower than that of group A. These results might be due to sufficient and effective preoperative intravenous (IV) antibiotics injection to cover aerobic and anaerobic colonic flora [26]. In our hospital, when a patient was diagnosed as uncomplicated appendicitis by clinical and radiologic evaluation, IV cephalosporin (first or second generation) was given https://www.selleckchem.com/products/dorsomorphin-2hcl.html to the patient. If a patient was diagnosed as complicated appendicitis, IV metronidazole was added. As a result, patients in group A received single dose preoperative antibiotics and patients in group B Phosphatidylinositol diacylglycerol-lyase received those twice or three times. There are several limitations of this study. Firstly, this study was retrospective observational study. As above mentioned, several situations such as lack of resident, tight

operation schedule made prospective study difficult. Secondly, optimal timing of appendectomy could not be elucidated. We expect to solve these limitations through the large prospective randomized trial in the near future. Conclusions We still consider that appendicitis is not a medical disease but a surgical disease. This study revealed that delayed appendectomy was safe and feasible for adult patients with appendicitis although the clinical outcomes of delayed appendectomy were not superior to those of early appendectomy. Therefore, we suggest that surgeons would decide the appropriate timing of appendectomy with consideration other situations such as available hospital resources. References 1. Temple CL, Huchcroft SA, Temple WJ: The natural history of appendicitis in adults. A prospective study. Ann Surg 1995,221(3):278–281.PubMedCrossRef 2. Eldar S, Nash E, Sabo E, Matter I, Kunin J, Mogilner JG, Abrahamson J: Delay of surgery in acute appendicitis. Am J Surg 1997,173(3):194–198.PubMedCrossRef 3.

Strains were routinely

grown in Luria Bertani (LB) broth under shaking conditions at 37°C. To analyze the development of biofilm-like structures, bacterial strains were grown in the previously described ASM+ [16]. To attain consistency from batch to batch of medium ASM+ was made in a quantity sufficient for each planned set of experiments, a stringent method of preparing the medium was used. The components were added into sterile water in exact VE-822 in vitro order with vigorous vortexing for 10–30 seconds after each addition: mucin (Sigma-Aldrich, St. Louis, MO), 0.5% (w/v); unsheared salmon sperm DNA (Sigma-Aldrich), 0.4% (w/v); NaCl, 0.5% (w/v); KCl, 0.2% (w/v); casamino acids (Amresco, Solon, OH), 0.5% (w/v); egg yolk emulsion (source of lecithin; sterile; Remel, Lenexa, KS), 0.25% (v/v); diethylene triamine pentaacetic acid (1 mg/ml stock in 1 M NaOH; sterile; Sigma), 0.0005% (w/v). Finally, the pH was adjusted to 6.8. Antibiotics were then added to maintain sterility and for maintenance of plasmids: 300 μg carbenicillin/ml https://www.selleckchem.com/products/tideglusib.html and/or 50 μg tetracycline/ml for P. aeruginosa; 10 μg erythromycin/ml for S. aureus. The completed medium was then vortexed

for 2 minutes and again prior to pipetting. To induce biofilm formation on the substrate surface, we used trypticase soy broth dialysate (TSBDC) to which glycerol (1% v/v) and monosodium glutamate (0.5 M) were added [55]. Table 6 Strains and plasmids used in this study Strain Description Source

Plasmids pCM11 Plasmid stable in S. aureus that constitutively expresses green fluorescent protein (GFP); Emr Alexander Horswill, personal communication pMRP9-1 pUCP-18 cloning vector carrying a GFP cassette; Cbr [56] pMP7605 pBBR1MCS-5 cloning vector carrying the mCherry gene under the control Erastin ic50 of the tac promoter; Cbr [34] Pseudomonas aeruginosa PA103 Human isolate [24] PAK Prototroph; human isolate [57] PAO1 Prototroph; human isolate [58] PAO-R1 ΔlasR derivative of PAO1; Tcr [51] PAO-JP1 ΔlasI derivative of PAO1; Tcr [59] PDO111 rhlR::Tn501 derivative of PAO1; Hgr [60] PDO100 ΔrhlI::Tn501 derivative of PAO1; Hgr [60] PW2798::pqsA-lacZ pqsA-H05::ISlacZ/hah derivative of PAO1; Tcr [61]; University of Washington Genome Center CI-4 Human isolate from selleck compound chronic lower respiratory infection; ΔlasR, ΔrhlR [27] Staphylococcus aureus AH133 RN4220 carrying pCM11; Emr [62]; Alexander Horswill, personal communication Em, erythromycin; r, resistant; Cb, carbenicillin; Hg, mercury; Tc, tetracycline. To allow visualization of the bacteria, all P. aeruginosa strains were transformed by electroporation [63] with pMRP9-1 from which the gene for green fluorescent protein (GFP) is constitutively expressed [56]. To visualize PAO1 grown together with AH133, PAO1 was transformed with pMP7605 in which the mCherry gene that codes for red fluorescent protein (RFP) is expressed from the tac promoter [34]. The S.

CrossRef 18. Zhang C, Boudiba A, Navio C, Bittencourt C, Olivier M-G, Snyders R, Debliquy M: Highly sensitive hydrogen sensors based on co-sputtered platinum-activated tungsten oxide films. Int J Hydrogen Energ 2011, 36:1107–1114.CrossRef 19. Ren S, Fan G, Qu S, Wang Q: Enhanced H 2 sensitivity at room temperature of ZnO nanowires functionalized by Pd nanoparticles. J Appl Phys 2011, 110:084312–084316.CrossRef 20. Usman Ali SM, Alvi NH, Ibupoto Z, Nur O, Willander M, Danielsson B: Selective potentiometric determination of uric acid

with uricase immobilized on ZnO nanowires. Sensor Actuat B: Chem 2011, 152:241–247.CrossRef 21. Wang HT, Kang BS, Ren F, Tien LC, Sadik PW, Norton VX-770 price DP, Pearton SJ, Lin J: Detection of hydrogen at room temperature with catalyst-coated multiple ZnO nanorods. Appl Phys A 2005, 81:1117–1119.CrossRef 22. Wang HT, Kang BS, Ren F, Tien LC, Sadik PW, Norton DP, Pearton SJ, Lin J: Hydrogen-selective sensing at room temperature with ZnO nanorods. Appl Phys Lett 2005, 86:243503–243505.CrossRef

23. Kashif M, Usman Ali SM, Ali ME, Abdulgafour HI, Hashim U, Willander M, Hassan Z: Morphological, optical, and Raman characteristics of ZnO nanoflakes prepared via a sol–gel method. Phys Status Solidi (A) 2012, 209:143–147.CrossRef 24. Kashif M, Hashim U, Ali ME, Usman Ali SM, Rusop M, Ibupoto ZH, Willander M: Effect of different seed solutions on the morphology and electrooptical properties of ZnO nanorods. J Nanomater doi:10.1155/2012/452407. SP600125 in vitro 25. Lupan O, Emelchenko GA, Ursaki VV, Chai G, Redkin AN, Gruzintsev AN, Tiginyanu IM, Chow L, Ono LK, Roldan Cuenya B, Heinrich H, Yakimov EE: Synthesis and characterization of ZnO nanowires for nanosensor applications. Mater Res Bull 2010, 45:1026–1032.CrossRef 26. Machado G, Guerra DN, Leinen D, Ramos-Barrado JR, Marotti RE, Protein kinase N1 Dalchiele EA: Indium doped zinc oxide thin films obtained by electrodeposition. Thin Solid Films 2005, 490:124–131.CrossRef 27. Barsan N, Weimar U: Conduction model of metal oxide gas sensors. J Electroceram 2001, 7:143–167.CrossRef 28. Barsan N, Weimar U: Understanding the fundamental principles of metal oxide based gas sensors; the example of CO sensing with SnO 2 sensors

in the presence of humidity. J Phys: Condensed Matter 2003, 15:R813-R839.CrossRef 29. Lee Y-M, Huang C-M, Chen H-W, Yang H-W: Low temperature solution-processed ZnO nanorod arrays with application to liquid ethanol sensors. Sensor Actuat A: Phys 2013, 189:307–312.CrossRef 30. Sen S, Muthe KP, Joshi N, Gadkari SC, Gupta SK, Jagannath , Roy M, Deshpande SK, Yakhmi JV: Room temperature operating ammonia sensor based on tellurium thin films. Sensor Actuat B: Chem 2004, 98:154–159.CrossRef 31. Ponce MA, Bueno PR, Varela J, Castro MS, Aldao CM: Impedance spectroscopy Berzosertib datasheet analysis of SnO 2 thick-films gas sensors. J Mater Sci: Mater El 2008, 19:1169–1175.CrossRef 32. Aguir K, Labidi A, Lambert-Mauriata C: Impedance spectroscopy to identify the conduction mechanisms in WO3 sensors. In Sensors, 2006.

EHW was essential Dactolisib nmr during the imaging experiments, participated in the experimental design and helped with critically revising the manuscript. RF contributed to experimental design and revision of the manuscript. GDS contributed to experimental

design and revision of the manuscript. VLM participated in the coordination and design of the this website study and revised the manuscript for intellectual content. All authors read and approved the manuscript.”
“Background Methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA) infections remain a major healthcare burden considering the emergence of more virulent community-acquired or -associated MRSA (CA-MRSA) in addition to the longer existent hospital-acquired (HA-) PHA-848125 MRSA strains. While an abundance of MRSA typing data from the

United States, Western Europe and Australia are available, comparable data for the Middle East are generally scarce. With regard to HA-MRSA strains, the pandemic strain ST239-III appears to be widespread in the region [1–5]. That strain was reportedly common in Saudi Arabia during the 1990s [6]. Another pandemic strain, CC22-IV (UK-EMRSA-15) has been detected in Kuwait [7] and Abu Dhabi [2]. Studies in various hospitals and several countries indicated an increased number of CA-MRSA infections confirmed by strain typing data. PVL-positive strains, which are usually regarded as community-associated, have been found in Kuwait [8], Abu Dhabi [2], Lebanon [9], Egypt [10], Tunisia [11], Algeria [12, 13] as well as in people travelling from and to various Middle Eastern countries [14]. In Riyadh, the capital of the Kingdom of Saudi stiripentol Arabia, an increasing number of MRSA cases has been detected since the application of an infection control policy requiring a systematic MRSA screening of patients prior to admission in hospitals in 2008 [15, 16]. The MRSA prevalence in patients seen in King Fahad Medical City in Riyadh was 50.4% for the year 2011 (unpublished internal statistics, based on susceptibility tests of isolates from diagnostic samples),

and thus it is within a similar order of magnitude to other hospitals in Saudi Arabia [17]. According to an earlier one year study (2005) performed in a hospital in the Western region of Saudi Arabia [18], the MRSA prevalence was 38.9% of which 78.8% showed resistance to erythromycin, gentamicin and oxytetracycline. The prevalence of CA-MRSA in a hospital in the Eastern region increased by six-fold during a 5-year period, between 2000 and 2008 [19]. To obtain the first MRSA typing data concerning Saudi Arabian patients, one hundred and seven MRSA isolates from King Fahad Medical City (KFMC) in Riyadh were characterised using DNA microarrays. Results Altogether, 102 patient isolates were analysed for this study. Detailed data on patients’ demographics and the origin of samples are provided as Additional file 1.

For cortisol, a further lowering during the postprandial period may be viewed as positive, as lower buy BIBW2992 cortisol may be associated with decreased proteolysis [35]–also important when considering anabolism. However, despite these findings, no differences existed for meal type or size with regards to testosterone or cortisol. With regards to cortisol and the further reduction of this hormone following meal consumption as compared to when Proteases inhibitor in a fasted state, a calorie load of some unknown and relatively small value may be adequate

to minimize the rise in this hormone–which may be in direct response to a drop in blood glucose and an attempt for cortisol to assist in maintaining

glycemia while in a fasted state [22]. Admittedly, we do not fully understand what such acute changes in hormone concentrations mean as related to overall health and muscle tissue growth. Clearly, testosterone has been reported to increase following exercise PLX4032 purchase [36], and is believed to be a major contributor to muscle mass gain [37]. It is logical to assume that elevated testosterone may equate to a greater degree of muscle growth over time; hence, methods of increasing testosterone via food intake appear appropriate. However, when exercise is followed by the consumption of carbohydrate and/or protein, testosterone values fall below resting levels in resistance-trained Sitaxentan men [38, 39]. This drop in testosterone is not observed in trained men who consume a placebo following

exercise [6, 39]. Despite the potential drop in testosterone during the acute postprandial period, carbohydrate/protein supplementation occurring two hours before exercise and immediately post-exercise, results in a peak of serum insulin concentrations by 500% above resting values within 45 minutes of ingestion [39]. Considering the multiple components and systems involved in regulating both anabolic and catabolic processes, the acute changes in circulating hormones from macronutrient consumption must be viewed with caution. That is, although testosterone may be acutely decreased with feeding, avoiding the ingestion of nutritious foods (in particular, post-exercise) may prove counterproductive with regards to influencing other anabolic hormones (e.g., insulin), as well as other aspects of human health and recovery (e.g., cellular immunity, glycogen resynthesis). It is important to note some limitations of this work. First, we used a sample of healthy men, with measurements obtained in a fasted state. It is possible that subjects with known disease, and/or women, may have responded differently. Second, testing was conducted in the morning hours, in an attempt to control for the diurnal variations in hormones, and measurements ceased three hours following meal ingestion.

For this reason, Copanlisib solubility dmso as predicted by the model, there is little antibiotic variation (73–77 mg l-1 of cephamycin C) at the highest lysine concentration (7.4 g l-1) within the entire cadaverine concentration range under investigation. This is due to the fact that the linear effect of lysine is about thrice stronger than that of this diamine. With respect to lysine combined with putrescine, adding 0.20 g l-1 of this diamine to media containing 3.7 g l-1 of amino acid increased production by approximately 40% as compared to that obtained with medium containing just lysine at the same concentration

(Table 2). On the other hand, adding this diamine to media with higher lysine concentrations (7.4 g l-1) adversely affected production due to the negative effect

stemming from the interaction between the compounds (Figure 4D). Thus, the highest production Vistusertib cell line value predicted for 7.7 g l-1 of lysine combined with 0.13 g l-1 of putrescine is just 76 mg l-1. Similar volumetric production values were obtained with basal culture media containing 7.4 g l-1 of lysine as additive (Figure 2). Martín et al. [43] observed that supplementation with putrescine provided much lower mRNA Ricolinostat levels than those obtained with 1,3-diaminopropane in P. chrysogenum cultures. Despite structural similarity between 1,3-diaminopropane and putrescine, these authors suggest that the positive effect obtained with diamines is probably attributable to the three-carbon structure of diamines. On the other hand, Leitão et al. [32] observed an approximately threefold increase when 0.2 g l-1 of putrescine was added to N. lactamdurans cultures. Figures 5 and 6 show the results of two cultivations in bioreactor using 7.0 g l-1 of lysine combined with 5.2 g l-1 of 1,3-diaminopropane

and 5.3 g l-1of lysine combined with 0.64 g l-1 of alpha-aminoadipic acid. These concentrations, predicted by the models as optimal production conditions, resulted in 190 mg l-1 and 160 mg l-1 of cephamycin C for lysine combined with 1,3-diaminopropane and lysine combined with alpha-aminoadipic acid, respectively. Figure 5 Batch cultivation in agitated and aerated bench-bioreactor for lysine combined with 1,3-diaminopropane. Cephamycin C concentration Etomidate (CephC), specific production, and biomass; basal medium containing cephamycin C production-enhancing compounds at their optimal values (in parentheses), lysine (7.0 g l-1) and 1,3-diaminopropane (5.2 g l-1) (open symbols); control condition: basal medium without additives (solid symbols). Figure 6 Batch cultivation in agitated and aerated bench-bioreactor for lysine combined with alpha-aminoadipic acid. Cephamycin C concentration (CephC), specific production, and biomass; basal medium containing cephamycin C production-enhancing compounds at their optimal values (in parentheses), lysine (5.3 g.l-1) and alpha-aminoadipic acid (0.6 g.