3) has an important ecological implication and deserves special attention. This is the only organism known so far that is capable of such a function under soda-saturated conditions among sulfidogens from soda lakes. Although the

pathway of acetate utilization needs to be studied in detail, one of the possibilities is that it might be used by reversing the acetogenic Wood cycle. A test for the ability of the type species N. acetigena to grow by sulfur respiration either organotrophically with EtOH or lactate or lithotrophically with H2 and formate yielded negative results. Thus, significant physiological differences within a single phylotype highlight the necessity of combining molecular ecology with the isolation and physiological Angiogenesis inhibitor investigation of pure cultures in order to understand the function of microbial communities. In other words, multiple closely related phylotypes detected using a culture-independent

approach may correspond to physiological diversification and, therefore, both aspects need to be studied in parallel. A recent example of such a trait has been revealed by an extensive polyphasic analysis of two extremely halophilic members of Salinibacter ruber (Peña et al., 2010). Fermentative members of the order Halanaerobiales dominate the anaerobic bacterial community under hypersaline conditions due to their relatively ‘cheap’ K+-based osmoadaptation strategy (Oren, 1999, 2011). According to the hypothesis of A. Oren, in prokaryotes, there is a direct correlation between the energy yield of catabolism and the ability Selleck CYC202 to grow at high salinity. Because the inorganic osmolyte strategy based on potassium import needs much less energy input than de novo synthesis of organic osmolytes, it confers an advantage to such organisms to exploit low energy yield catabolic reactions at extreme salinity. On the basis of the work presented here and also based on other recently published results, it seems that some members of the order Haloanaerobiales use an energy metabolism that has until now been considered rather uncharacteristic for this group. In the absence

of more D-malate dehydrogenase specialized extremely halophilic dissimilatory sulfur-dissimilatory respirers, these organisms are able to perform anaerobic respiration in addition to or even instead of fermentation. Such examples are represented by the extremely halophilic Selenihalanaerobacter shriftii (Switzer-Blum et al., 2001), the recently described extremely haloalkaliphilic arsenate- and sulfur-reducing Halarsenatibacter silvermanii (Switzer-Blum et al., 2009) and the Natroniella strains AHT3, AHT4 and AHT18, described here. The latter, however, advanced further in their specialization by adopting a lithoautotrophic lifestyle. Both possibilities (autotrophy and respiratory catabolism) are basically present in some of the nonextremophilic acetogens.

Isolates from the sixth pandemic are almost exclusively the Classical biotype. However, the seventh, current pandemic has been dominated by V. cholerae O1 El Tor (Kaper et al., 1995). Isolates of all previous pandemics originated in the Indian subcontinent, whereas those associated with the seventh pandemic have their origin in the Indonesian island of Sulawesi, with subsequent Panobinostat research buy isolation from Asia, Africa and Latin America. In 1992, a new serogroup, V. cholerae O139, was identified as the cause of cholera outbreaks in India and Bangladesh (Ramamurthy et al.,

1993). Two gene clusters associated with the seventh pandemic strain were identified by comparative genomics using microarray analysis and named Vibrio seventh pandemic (VSP) I and II. These clusters were absent in Classical and prepandemic V. cholerae El Tor strains and showed an unusual G+C content (40%), compared with the entire V. cholerae genome (47%) (Dziejman et al., selleck compound 2002). VSP-II was originally identified as a 7.5-kb island, spanning genes VC0490–VC0497 in V. cholerae O1 El Tor N16961 (Dziejman et al., 2002), and, subsequently, found to include a larger 26.9-kb region, spanning from VC0490 to VC0516 (O’Shea et al., 2004). Its site of integration is a tRNA-methionine locus, VC0516.1.

As described in V. cholerae O1 El Tor N16961, VSP-II encodes type IV pilin, two methyl-accepting chemotaxis proteins, an AraC-like transcriptional regulator, a DNA repair protein and a P4-like integrase (VC0516) SPTLC1 at the 3′ end of the island. Murphy & Boyd (2008) found that VSP-II excises from the chromosome, forming an extrachromosomal circular intermediate

through a site-specific recombination mediated by the integrase encoded in the island. To date, two variants of VSP-II have been described in the literature: one in a V. cholerae non-O1 strain from Bangladesh and one in a V. cholerae O1 El Tor strain isolated in Peru during 1991–2003; moreover, the cluster was detected in several V. cholerae non-O1 non-O139 strains (Dziejman et al., 2002, 2005; Nusrin et al., 2009). In this study, comparative genomic analysis was used to determine the presence and the genetic composition of VSP-II islands among 23 strains of V. cholerae. In our analysis, we reannotated the VSP-II present in V. cholerae O1 El Tor N16961 and analyzed the VSP-II described previously in V. cholerae O37 MZO-3 (Dziejman et al., 2005). Further, three new variants with significant genetic polymorphisms were discovered and their distribution among a large V. cholerae collection was assessed. From this study, it is concluded that VSP-II is not as conserved as has been reported and can be considered a molecular tag in epidemic V. cholerae. Twenty-three V. cholerae strains included in a comparative genomics analysis were screened for VSP-II, along with 188 well-characterized laboratory collection strains and 190 V.

These findings suggest that restricted feeding leads to entrainment of stomach clocks in ghrelin-expressing cells and food-entrained ghrelin signaling feeds back to the central nervous system to drive changes in FAA. Other neuronal systems including the hypocretin arousal Alectinib in vitro system (Akiyama et al., 2004; Mieda et al., 2004) and orexogenic melanocortin system (Sutton et al., 2008; Patton & Mistlberger, 2013) have been implicated in food entrainment, with disruptions to either system causing pronounced deficits in FAA. Most salient in daily life is the relationship between sleep and circadian rhythmicity. Associated with the timing of the rest–activity cycles are

rhythms in alertness/drowsiness, mood, and other behaviors. These cycles, and the processes that they impact, are an immense and fundamentally important topic, with much work in basic, clinical and pharmacological aspects (reviewed in Murray & Harvey, 2010; Harvey, 2011; Krystal et al., 2013; Saper & Sehgal, 2013). Although the details of sleep–circadian relationships are beyond the scope of this review, we highlight some major aspects. SB431542 in vitro The relationship between circadian clocks and sleep involves two interacting processes, and is captured

in the classical opponent process model of Borbely (1982). The homeostatic component of sleep involves a process whereby the sleep pressure (termed process S) increases the longer that an individual is awake. The neural locus regulating this homeostatic pressure is not well defined, and involves multiple brain regions and transmitters (see below). In contrast, the circadian system that regulates the timing of wakefulness and sleep has its well-characterized anatomical

locus in the SCN. The SCN has monosynaptic efferents to a number of nearby hypothalamic regions (reviewed in Morin, 2013), and these in turn relay information to a large number of brain regions, including those involved in regulating awake and sleep states. The neural circuits involved in sleep and arousal include the basal forebrain, brainstem, and hypothalamic components. The SCN has relatively Etofibrate few direct outputs to sleep–wake regulatory systems. Most of its output projects to nearby hypothalamic regions that relay signals to sleep and wake regulatory regions. The sleep circuits are comprised of numerous projections of neurons releasing different types of neurotransmitters and neuropeptides (reviewed in Saper et al., 2005) (Fig. 3). Briefly, arousal pathways include cholinergic neurons of the ascending arousal pathway, located in the pedunculopontine and laterodorsal tegmental nucleus, serotoninergic neurons in the dorsal raphe nucleus, noradrenergic neurons in the locus coeruleus, dopaminergic neurons in the median raphe nucleus, and histaminergic neurons in the tuberomammillary nucleus of the hypothalamus. Activity in these neurons promotes alertness and cortical arousal.

What at AZD2281 mw first appeared to be almost unfathomable diversity and complexity is becoming more accessible as the ‘rules’ that apply to circuit

construction are elucidated. Dual intracellular recordings with dye-labelling have been very informative here. They have documented the vast range of properties displayed when different classes of synaptic connections are studied in detail and compared, each class displaying its own unique combination of properties (e.g. Thomson & Lamy, 2007 for review; see also Fig. 1). Synaptic connections are not made randomly with just any neuronal element that happens to be near to a particular axon. They involve only certain classes of target neurones and, moreover, specific subcellular compartments of those cells (Somogyi & Klausberger, 2005; Klausberger & Somogyi, 2008; for review of interneuronal axon targets; Thomson & Lamy, 2007, for review of pyramidal targets). These selective MK-1775 innervation patterns probably account for some of the GABAAR subtype segregation apparent in pharmacological and immunocytochemical studies, as each class of interneurone targets only certain subcompartments of its postsynaptic principal cell partners. In polarized epithelial cells, GABAARs containing the β1-subunit are sorted

to the apical membrane (Perez-Velazquez & Angelides, 1993) and β2/3-subunits to the basolateral membrane (Connolly et al., 1996a). Something similar appears to be happening in hippocampal pyramidal cells. Synapses supplied by basket cells (both PV- and CCK-containing) that innervate the soma and proximal dendrites of pyramidal cells were enhanced by low concentrations of Etomidate, an anaesthetic whose potency is greater at β2/3-subunit-containing GABAARs than at β1-subunit-containing GABAARs, but independent of the α-subunit included (Hill-Venning et al., 1997). When inputs to pyramidal cell dendrites acetylcholine supplied by bistratified cells were tested, however, they were very much less

sensitive to Etomidate (H. Pawelzik, unpublished data). It therefore appears that proximal GABAergic synapses on pyramidal cells are supplied with β2/3-subunit-containing GABAARs, while at least some dendritic synapses contain β1-subunit-containing GABAARs. Most synaptic GABAARs in cortical regions contain a γ2L-subunit; indeed, a γ2-subunit appears obligatory for synaptic receptors in cortical pyramidal cells (Essrich et al., 1998; Schweizer et al., 2003). The predominant class of extrasynaptic receptors contain a δ-subunit instead. In addition to the γ2-subunit most GABAARs are thought to contain two β-subunits and two α-subunits. Summarising simplistically, therefore, somatic synaptic GABAARs contain a γ2- and two β2/3-subunits, while at least some dendritic synaptic receptors contain a γ2- and two β1-subunits.

dysgalactiae occurred in amberjack Seriola dumerili and yellowtail Seriola quinqueradiata farms in the southern districts of Japan (Nomoto et PD-166866 manufacturer al., 2004, 2006). During the subsequent years, many fish farms in Japan suffered huge losses due to S. dysgalactiae infection, which was characterized by high

mortality and severe muscle necrosis in the caudal peduncle (Nomoto et al., 2008; Abdelsalam et al., 2009b). Since then, several comparison studies have been performed for biochemical and genetic characterizations of fish and mammalian isolates of S. dysgalactiae (Nomoto et al., 2006, 2008). The pathogen has also been isolated from the Amur sturgeon, Acipenser schrenckii, in China (Yang & Li, 2009). Recently, α-hemolytic Lancefield group C S. dysgalactiae isolated from fish was found to have caused ascending upper limb cellulitis in humans (Koh et al., 2009). Therefore, S. dysgalactiae is considered to be an emerging fish pathogen, and its clinical significance has increased in aquaculture as well as in mammalian and human health. However, the origin and infection mechanism that characterize S. dysgalactiae as a fish pathogen remain unknown (Abdelsalam et al., 2009a). Despite increased clinical significance, the characterization of S. dysgalactiae Tacrolimus mouse strains isolated

from different fish species collected in many countries and the epidemiological relationships among them have not been studied. This study aimed to undertake the phenotypic and genetic characterizations of S. dysgalactiae strains isolated from the genus Seriola collected in Japan, and to compare the results with those of infected fish collected in other Asian countries. Table 1 lists the 30 S. dysgalactiae isolates used in this

study. These strains were isolated from diseased fish collected from different fish farms in Kagoshima prefecture in Japan (n=12; four isolated from amberjack S. dumerili, four from yellowtail S. during quinqueradiata, and four from king fish Seriola lalandi), Taiwan (n=12; 10 from gray mullet Mugil cephaleus, one from basket mullet Liza alata, and one from cobia Rachycentron canadum), Indonesia (n=1, from hybrid red tilapia Oreochromis sp.), Malaysia (n=3; two from pompano Trachinotus blochii and one from white spotted snapper Lutjanus stellatus), and China (n=2 from pompano T. blochii). Further, in this study, S. dysgalactiae ssp. dysgalactiae ATCC43078 was used as a reference strain. Stock cultures of S. dysgalactiae isolates were maintained at −80 °C in Todd Hewitt broth (Difco, Sparks, MD). All the isolates were routinely aerobically grown on Todd Hewitt agar (THA; Difco) or blood agar (Columbia agar base; Becton Dickinson, Cockeysville, MD) containing 5% sheep blood (Nippon Bio-Test Laboratories, Japan) and incubated at 37 °C for 24 h. Genomic DNA was extracted from bacterial colonies using a DNAzol® reagent (Invitrogen, Carlsbad) according to the manufacturer’s protocol. The identification of the S.

Methods  This is a quasi-experimental interrupted time-series study. A 60 min debate was organized as a lunchtime meeting. A four-category Likert scale questionnaire (fully agree, partially agree, partially disagree, fully disagree) measured the debate participants’ level of agreement with 25 statements (main issues associated with online pharmacy) in the pre-phase (before the debate), post-phase 1 (after the debate) and post-phase 2 (6 months after the debate). One hundred and seventy-seven students were recruited (response rate of 100% in the pre-phase and post-phase 1, 31% in post-phase 2). Four questions measured the perceptions of the students

on this pedagogical technique. Key findings  The overall proportion of respondents in favour of online pharmacy practice showed little variation among the three phases. However, on average (mean ± SD) 43 ± 8% of the respondents changed www.selleckchem.com/HDAC.html their opinion, 21 ± 7% reversed their opinion, 22 ± 4% nuanced their opinion and 1 ± 1% radically changed their opinion. Respectively 98% (post-phase 1) and 96% (post-phase 2) of the respondents were of the opinion that debate was a very useful teaching formula in their pharmacist training

CDK and cancer and 79 and 66% thought debate significantly changed their opinion of the issue. Conclusions  Few data have been collected on the use of debates as part of healthcare professional training. The impact of a debate on how pharmacy students feel about

online pharmacy practice is described. “
“To explore community pharmacists’ understanding and opinions in relation to the prevention of fungal colonisation of voice prostheses amongst laryngectomy patients. Semi-structured interviews were conducted on a purposive sample of 12 community pharmacists from the North of England. Interviews were undertaken until data saturation was reached and responses were transcribed verbatim and analysed using a thematic approach. Six themes emerged from the data analysis. These were: terminology confusion about laryngectomy, stoma and voice prostheses; smoking as a risk factor for the development of laryngeal cancer; using nystatin to prevent biofilm formation; counselling information related to nystatin; prescription intervention and additional education in relation to laryngectomy. click here The theme of counselling information related to nystatin use and additional education was a key finding: our data show that when dispensing nystatin to patients with a voice prosthesis, community pharmacists would either give no advice related to medication use or would give incorrect advice that may lead to premature prosthesis failure amongst this patient group. This study highlights that community pharmacists lack understanding in relation to laryngectomy and are unaware of the off-label doses and administration methods of the drugs (specifically nystatin) used to prevent fungal colonisation on voice prostheses.

Hence, the aim of our study was to conduct an in-depth scoping review of the literature and provide a current overview of the progressive application of DCEs within the field of pharmacy An extensive search of the literature was conducted to identify published English language studies using

DCEs within the pharmacy context. The following databases were searched between January 1990 and August 2011: MEDLINE, EMBASE, SCOPUS Natural Product Library high throughput and ECONLIT. Search strategies were formulated for individual databases using the following keywords: ‘discrete choice’ or ‘discrete choice experiment’ or ‘discrete choice analysis’ or ‘discrete choice modelling’ or ‘conjoint’ or ‘conjoint analysis’ or ‘stated preference method’ AND ‘pharmacy’ or ‘pharmacies’ or ‘community pharmacy’ or ‘pharmacist’ or ‘pharmacy service’ or ‘pharmaceutical service’ or ‘pharmaceutical care’ or ‘pharmaceutical program’ or ‘specialized service’ or ‘cognitive service’ find more or ‘disease management’ or ‘chemist’. Studies were limited to those that used choice-based techniques, were applicable to pharmacy and were written in English. Reviews, conference

papers, commentaries and letters were excluded. ● Choice-based studies: We limited our analyses to utility-based choice studies including discrete choice experiments and conjoint analysis with a choice-based response format. Studies that presented methodological issues or used conjoint analysis with ranking or rating were not included. ● Applicability to pharmacy: This included choice-based studies that elicited (1) patient preferences for pharmacy-delivered products/services, pharmacies and/or pharmacists; (2) pharmacists preferences for products, treatments, services or job-choices; (3) preferences of both, patients and pharmacists; or (4) informed pharmacy policy or the decision-making framework. Two authors independently reviewed titles and abstracts

and all potential articles meeting the inclusion criteria were downloaded/obtained for additional review. The two authors conducted data abstraction independently and in duplicate and reached consensus through discussion about any disagreement. Included papers were organised and analysed for the following: A DCE is conducted in several stages.[23, 26] Readers are referred to Ryan et al.[26] and Payne and Protirelin Elliot[23] for a description of the different stages. The first step of a DCE is to identify attributes and levels that adequately describe the service or intervention to be evaluated. The next important step of the DCE methodology is the development of the experimental design, hypothetical scenarios and construction of choice sets. The identified attributes and levels are formed into scenarios. The number of possible scenarios that must be included in the experiment to incorporate the total number of combinations of attributes and levels is called a ‘full factorial design’.

Hence, the aim of our study was to conduct an in-depth scoping review of the literature and provide a current overview of the progressive application of DCEs within the field of pharmacy An extensive search of the literature was conducted to identify published English language studies using

DCEs within the pharmacy context. The following databases were searched between January 1990 and August 2011: MEDLINE, EMBASE, SCOPUS learn more and ECONLIT. Search strategies were formulated for individual databases using the following keywords: ‘discrete choice’ or ‘discrete choice experiment’ or ‘discrete choice analysis’ or ‘discrete choice modelling’ or ‘conjoint’ or ‘conjoint analysis’ or ‘stated preference method’ AND ‘pharmacy’ or ‘pharmacies’ or ‘community pharmacy’ or ‘pharmacist’ or ‘pharmacy service’ or ‘pharmaceutical service’ or ‘pharmaceutical care’ or ‘pharmaceutical program’ or ‘specialized service’ or ‘cognitive service’ Selleck CHIR-99021 or ‘disease management’ or ‘chemist’. Studies were limited to those that used choice-based techniques, were applicable to pharmacy and were written in English. Reviews, conference

papers, commentaries and letters were excluded. ● Choice-based studies: We limited our analyses to utility-based choice studies including discrete choice experiments and conjoint analysis with a choice-based response format. Studies that presented methodological issues or used conjoint analysis with ranking or rating were not included. ● Applicability to pharmacy: This included choice-based studies that elicited (1) patient preferences for pharmacy-delivered products/services, pharmacies and/or pharmacists; (2) pharmacists preferences for products, treatments, services or job-choices; (3) preferences of both, patients and pharmacists; or (4) informed pharmacy policy or the decision-making framework. Two authors independently reviewed titles and abstracts

and all potential articles meeting the inclusion criteria were downloaded/obtained for additional review. The two authors conducted data abstraction independently and in duplicate and reached consensus through discussion about any disagreement. Included papers were organised and analysed for the following: A DCE is conducted in several stages.[23, 26] Readers are referred to Ryan et al.[26] and Payne and Prostatic acid phosphatase Elliot[23] for a description of the different stages. The first step of a DCE is to identify attributes and levels that adequately describe the service or intervention to be evaluated. The next important step of the DCE methodology is the development of the experimental design, hypothetical scenarios and construction of choice sets. The identified attributes and levels are formed into scenarios. The number of possible scenarios that must be included in the experiment to incorporate the total number of combinations of attributes and levels is called a ‘full factorial design’.

mutans, including

ABT-737 cost genes affecting cell envelope biogenesis, energy metabolism and stress tolerance. Bacteria can sense oxygen tension through monitoring the accumulation of metabolites or the altered redox state of specific compounds as a result of changes in cellular homeostasis (Wang et al., 2008). Recent studies on Streptomyces coelicolor and Bacillus subtilis identified a new type of regulator, termed Rex (for redox repressor), that directly responds to changes in the cytoplasmic NADH/NAD+ ratio (Brekasis & Paget, 2003; Wang et al., 2008; Pagels et al., 2010). In B. subtilis, the transcription of Rex-repressed genes is activated in response to oxygen limitation, which leads to production of cytochrome bd and NADH-linked lactate dehydrogenase, ensuring

efficient oxygen utilization and recycling the excess of NADH (Larsson et al., 2005; Gyan et al., 2006). In Staphylococcus aureus, Rex regulates pathways for anaerobic fermentation and NAD+ regeneration (Pagels et al., 2010). Streptococcus mutans possesses a rex gene (SMU.1053) that encodes a protein with high similarity to the Rex family of proteins. In this study, we constructed a deletional mutant and characterization of this Rex-deficient mutant revealed that Rex plays an important role in regulation MK2206 of central metabolism, oxidative stress and biofilm formation by S. mutans. Streptococcus mutans UA159 and its derivatives were maintained in brain heart infusion (BHI) medium. Solid media were prepared similarly, but agar (Difco Laboratories) was added at a concentration of 1.5% (w/v). When needed, kanamycin (1 mg mL−1), erythromycin (10 μg mL−1) or spectinomycin (1 mg mL−1) was added to the growth medium. Unless stated otherwise, all cultures were grown aerobically in a 37 °C chamber containing 5% CO2 under static conditions. For growth studies, a Bioscreen C (Oy Growth Curves AB Ltd, Finland) was used to culture cells at 37 °C, aerobically, and the ODs were monitored every 30 min following shaking for 10 s (Zeng et al.,

2006). Strains deficient Staurosporine cell line in rex were generated using a PCR-ligation-mutation strategy described elsewhere (Lau et al., 2002; Wen & Burne, 2004) (Table 1). The resulting mutants were further analyzed by PCR and DNA sequencing to verify the deficiency and sequence accuracy. For mutant complementation, the gene of interest plus its putative promoter region were directly cloned into the shuttle vector pDL278 (LeBanc & Lee, 1991). Following sequence confirmation, the resulting construct was transformed into the mutant, and transformants carrying with the wild-type copy of rex were isolated from plates containing the appropriate antibiotics. For biofilm formation, S. mutans strains were cultivated using a modified semi-defined biofilm medium (BM) (Loo et al., 2000) with glucose (20 mM, BMG), sucrose (10 mM, BMS), or glucose (18 mM) and sucrose (2 mM) (BMGS) as the supplemental carbohydrate sources (Wen et al., 2006).

3a). All four of these inhibitory compounds reduced the biomass by over 80% at the highest concentration (25 mM), with decanol, dodecanol and decanoic acid showing no significant differences between their concentration-dependent inhibitory profiles across the range tested. Biomass inhibition by octanoic acid was not observed until ≥1.6 mM. The three most effective exogenous inhibitory compounds were tested against preformed mature selleck chemical A. fumigatus biofilms. The biomass of A. fumigatus biofilms was shown to be reduced by all three compounds in a concentration-dependent manner, with decanol showing a reduction across the entire concentration range tested,

whereas both decanoic acid and dodecanol did not reduce the biomass significantly until concentrations of 1.6 mM were applied. All

three agents reduced the biomass by ≥85% at 25 mM (Fig. 3b). The pulmonary cavity of CF patients is a unique environment impacted by a complex microbial ecology. However, to date, relatively little is known about bacterial–fungal cross kingdom interactions within the CF lung. Cell-to-cell signalling is thought to play an important role in determining the ability of particular pathogens to compete with each other for space and nutrients and may contribute to the ability of microorganisms to persist within the CF pulmonary cavity. The data presented herein are suggestive that an antagonistic relationship exists between A. fumigatus and P. aeruginosa, which is influenced through the Mannose-binding protein-associated serine protease PS-341 nmr release of small diffusible extracellular molecules. Pseudomonas aeruginosa and A. fumigatus are frequently isolated from CF patients. Typically by the age of 18, up to 80% of CF patients are infected with P. aeruginosa, whereas the incidence of A. fumigatus is somewhat variable in CF patients (Bakare et al., 2003; Valenza et al., 2008). This study demonstrated that P. aeruginosa significantly impedes A. fumigatus growth. This is in agreement with reports from elsewhere describing antagonistic properties for bacteria isolated from clinical pulmonary samples (Kerr et al., 1999; Yadav et al., 2005). However,

investigation of the antifungal properties of bacterial CF lung pathogens against a panel of fungi, including A. fumigatus, showed that P. aeruginosa clinical isolates were shown to be unable to completely inhibit A. fumigatus (Kerr, 1994a, b). In agreement, our data showed that once filamentous biofilms had been produced, the inhibitory capacity of P. aeruginosa was significantly restricted, with coaggregation upon hyphae observed throughout A. fumigatus biofilms. Recent studies report a similar phenomenon, where P. aeruginosa and C. albicans were shown to exhibit a degree of mutual inhibition within the biofilm (Bandara et al., 2010b), suggesting that these mixed species consortia play a role in the pathobiology of the CF lung.