Table 3 shows the estimates of association between cigarette smoking variables and Barrett’s esophagus, compared with both GERD controls and population-based controls. Subjects with Barrett’s esophagus were significantly more likely to have ever-smoked cigarettes than both the population controls (OR = 1.67) and the GERD controls (OR = 1.61), although the GERD study-specific estimates appeared to be less heterogeneous (I2 = 11%, 95% uncertainty interval: 0–81%) than estimates from population-based control models (I2 = 82%, 95% uncertainty interval: 54–93%). Increasing pack-years of cigarette smoking was associated with

an increasing OR for Barrett’s esophagus compared with both ABT-263 in vivo control groups ( Table 3, Figure 1), although the risk relationship was not strictly linear in the categories used for assessment; the ORs for Barrett’s esophagus were approximately check details 1.5 for both <15 and 15 to 29 pack-years of smoking exposure groups, and approximately 2 for each of the higher exposure groups (ie, 30–44 and ≥45 pack-years of smoking) compared with each of the control groups and using never smokers as the referent. The spline models, shown in Figure 2, are somewhat more indicative of a linear relationship—at least until approximately 20 pack-years of smoking—and this did not

change when never-smokers were excluded. Conversely, the P value for trend for pack-years of smoking was statistically Docetaxel ic50 significant only when never smokers were included for analysis ( Table 3). Lastly, the additional cigarette smoking variables of duration, intensity, age of initiation,

and duration of cessation were not associated with Barrett’s esophagus after adjustment for total exposure ( Table 3). As shown in Figure 1, there were moderate-to-high levels of heterogeneity that were predominantly the product of the relatively lower estimates generated by the FINBAR study. When the FINBAR study was excluded, the summary ORs from the fully adjusted models slightly increased and heterogeneity (I2 values) decreased (population-based controls: ORever-smoke = 2.09; 95% CI: 1.54–2.83; I2 = 44%; OR<15 = 1.93; 95% CI: 1.36–2.74; I2 = 30%; OR15–29 = 1.75; 95% CI, 0.93–3.30; I2 = 68%; OR30–44 = 2.49; 95% CI: 1.70–3.65; I2 = 0%; OR≥45 = 2.57; 95% CI: 1.79–3.67; I2 = 0%; GERD controls: ORever-smoke = 1.75; 95% CI: 1.43–2.15; I2= 0%; OR<15 = 1.32; 95% CI: 0.95–1.84; I2 = 38%; OR15–29 = 1.62; 95% CI: 1.09–2.41; I2 = 25%; OR30–44 = 2.87; 95% CI: 1.88–4.38; I2 = 19%; OR≥45 = 2.12; 95% CI: 1.50–3.00; I2 = 0%). The stratified models tested whether the effect of a single exposure in relation to Barrett’s esophagus was modified by another variable. When stratified by sex, the estimates for ever-smoking and categories of pack-years, in relation to Barrett’s esophagus, were slightly higher in men (ORever-smoke = 1.81; 95% CI: 1.43–2.

, 2013). Our study covered a ten-fold greater area (2315 km2 vs. 207 km2) with much lower sampling density (0.05 wells/km2 vs. 8.3 wells/km2), so it is possible that not enough samples were obtained to discern the valley-methane relationship, but it is also possible that other factors are driving methane patterns in this particular region. Our second method for classifying topographic position, which relied on location in valley-fill aquifers, led to different grouping compared to the first method that used distance to streams as an indicator of topographic position. Since wells were only considered to be located

in valleys when they were in a mapped valley-fill aquifer, there were fewer (n = 29) valley wells compared to the 67 identified using the stream-based method. Despite the difference www.selleckchem.com/products/PD-0332991.html in groupings, overall results were similar. Statistical comparison check details of methane concentration and δ13C-CH4 using the Mann–Whitney test revealed no significant difference (p = 0.72; p = 0.27) ( Fig. 4c and g) between the distributions of methane for water samples located in valleys (n = 29) compared to those taken at upslope locations (n = 84). These findings are different from those of the recent USGS study in south-central

NY (Heisig and Scott, 2013), in that they did observe a statistically significant difference in methane concentrations by topographic setting. However, it was specifically wells located in confined valley aquifers that had statistically higher methane concentrations; methane concentrations in unconfined valley aquifers were not significantly different than those from upland sites. Boxplots showing distributions of dissolved methane from wells finished in sand and gravel aquifers (n = 9) compared to those from wells finished in Devonian sedimentary rock (n = 76) indicated a distribution skewed toward higher methane concentrations in bedrock wells. However, statistical comparison of methane concentration

and δ13C-CH4 using the Mann–Whitney triclocarban test revealed no significant difference (p = 0.10; p = 0.73) ( Fig. 4d and h) between the distributions from wells finished in sand and gravel aquifers compared to those from wells finished in Upper Devonian sedimentary rocks. The remaining 28 wells were not included in this comparison because they did not have available information on water-well depth or unit in which the well was finished. Separating out the 76 bedrock wells according to the particular geologic formation in which they were finished (which included five shale-dominated formations), there were still no significant differences (Kruskal–Wallis p > 0.05) across methane concentration or δ13C-CH4 (Fig. S1).

ROIs were therefore taken from the literature and effects of lexical category or semantics were investigated by two-way ANOVAs. Previous work targeting both lexical category differences (noun–verb) and semantic dissociations (living–nonliving, animals–tools, etc.) was exploited in defining ROIs (Bedny et al., 2008, Chao et al., 1999, Martin and Chao, 2001 and Martin and Weisberg, 2003; see Vigliocco et al. 2011). Bedny et al. (2008) reported a significant effect of lexical category but NOT of the only semantic variable they focused on, motion—related semantic word properties. This lexical category effect was seen in three ROIs, Verteporfin where verbs evoked greater activity than nouns: left temperoparietal junction (TPJ: coordinates −58,

−48, 22), superior temporal sulcus (STS: −57, −55, 12) and anterior superior temporal sulcus (aSTS: −57, −41, −1). However, using the same ROIs to scrutinise the present data set, we could not observe any concordant significant effect, and, more generally, not any main effect or interaction of either Lexical category or Semantics (all F-values <0.5). Their left STS ROI revealed a trend towards a lexical category difference which, though weak and far below significance (F(1, 17) = .422, p > .525), somewhat resembled that reported by Bedny, with numerically greater activity for verbs

(see Fig. 2, Part A). No significant effect of lexical category appeared in either the left temperoparietal junction ROI (F(1, 17) = .400,

p > .536) or the left Fluorouracil price anterior superior temporal sulcus ROI (F(1, 17) = .105, p > .750); in these cases, any numerical differences in favour of verbs were also absent in our data, in favour of a numerical contrast in the opposite direction. The combination of all three Bedny et al. regions (TPJ, STS and aSTS) also failed to reveal a significant effect of lexical category or semantics. Although, Palbociclib in our present analysis, activation maxima did not arise in the left STS in the contrast of all experimental words against baseline, we chose two coordinates located in the cluster of STS activation which were closest to Bedny et al.’s original anterior and posterior STS regions (see Fig. 2B). These coordinates, too, failed to replicate the verb advantage reported by Bedny and colleagues in left STS and showed no effect of lexical category. The present study was therefore unable to replicate the noun/verb difference in haemodynamic responses previously reported in left middle-temporal cortex. So far, analysis of all ROIs from the previous literature failed to reveal effects of lexical category. We did, however, observe a main effect of lexical category in analysis of two left frontal-insula regions (one more anterior at MNI coordinates −27, 33, 11, the other more posterior at −27, −3, 23) suggested by Martin et al.’s (1996) results of a positron emission tomography (PET) experiment investigating the naming of visually depicted animals and tools (F(1, 17) = 6.

Moderate evidence was found in favour of high-ESWT in the short-, mid- and long-term when compared to placebo, and in the mid- and long-term when compared to selleck chemical low-ESWT. Moreover, high-ESWT was more effective (moderate evidence) with focus on calcific deposit instead of focus on tuberculum major in the short- and long-term. RSWT was more effective (moderate evidence) than placebo in the mid-term. The 6 included RCTs that studied effectiveness of ESWT treating non-calcific RC-tendinosis did not reveal strong or moderate evidence. Only limited or no evidence for their

efficacy is available. Only two small studies (n = 40 for both studies) with non-calcific RC-tendinosis of the shoulder focused on high-ESWT. One RCT compared two types of high-ESWT and the other RCT compared high-ESWT to placebo. The statistical power of these studies may have been too low to reveal significant differences. All other studies concentrated on low or medium-ESWT to treat non-calcific RC-tendinosis and no evidence for effectiveness was found. Bearing in mind that only high-ESWT yielded positive findings for calcific tendinosis, future research on the effectiveness

of ESWT to treat non-calcific RC-tendinosis should concentrate on high-ESWT. According to our findings, high-ESWT is effective to treat patients with calcific RC-tendinosis. BMS-354825 research buy However, the mechanism of actions remains unknown. Resorption of the calcification in the tendon and reactive hypervascularization have been proposed (Loew et al., 1995). In other studies, release of substance P and prostaglandin E2 in the rabbit femur (Maier et al., 2003), decrease of calcitonin gene-related peptide (CGRP) immunoreactivity in dorsal root ganglion neurons in the skin of rats (Takahashi et al., 2003), and selective loss of unmyelinated nerve fibres (Hausdorf et al., 2008) after ESWT have been found. Substance P, CGRP (Schmitz and DePace, 2009) and selective destruction of unmyelinated nerve fibres within the focal zone of the shockwave

(Hausdorf CHIR-99021 research buy et al., 2008) might contribute to the analgetic working mechanism of ESWT. More research on the mechanism of ESWT is required. The present review has some limitations. Because of the heterogeneity of the trials, we refrained from statistical pooling of the results of the individual trials. A single-point estimate of the effect of the interventions included for calcific and non-calcific RC-tendinosis would probably not do justice to the differences between the trials regarding patient characteristics, interventions and outcome measures. The use of a best-evidence synthesis is a next best solution and a transparent method that is commonly applied in the field of musculoskeletal disorders when statistical pooling is not feasible or clinically viable (van Tulder et al., 2003). Secondly, only 56% of the total number of included RCTs was of high-quality. More high-quality RCTs are clearly needed in this field.

No entanto, os grupos não eram homogéneos para esta variável o que pode ser um viés de interpretação destes resultados. Admitimos portanto que o ensino personalizado poderá melhorar a preparação intestinal também nestas situações. Nos doentes diabéticos também não se verificaram diferenças significativas entre os grupos em relação à qualidade da preparação intestinal. Aqui, a intervenção personalizada ocorreu no tipo de alimentos adaptados ao gosto do doente, mas selleck chemical não num aumento da duração da dieta. Poderá ser tentada uma estratégia deste tipo, uma vez que muitas vezes esta patologia cursa

com aumento do tempo de trânsito intestinal e obstipação. Alcançou-se melhoria dos resultados nos doentes com escolaridade superior ao Ensino básico. STA-9090 manufacturer Este facto poderá estar relacionado com uma maior capacidade intelectual do doente, permitindo uma melhor compreensão e adesão às medidas propostas sendo, no entanto, discutível esta interpretação, dado que doentes com escolaridade inferior podem ter compreensão e adesão igualmente semelhantes ou o apoio de outros familiares no cumprimento das orientações dadas. O nosso estudo apresenta limitações que devem ser referidas. Uma é o tamanho da amostra, dado termos concluído serem necessários

pelo menos 199 doentes em cada grupo de estudo para a intervenção ter o efeito pretendido e estarem incluídos apenas 67 doentes no grupo «controlo» e 58 no grupo «intervenção». De facto, estes resultados são ainda preliminares e o ensaio prossegue no nosso Serviço, tendo-se decidido fazer uma avaliação a esta altura por se ter incluído cerca de um terço dos doentes. Por outro lado, seria importante valorizar o impacto que a melhoria da qualidade da preparação intestinal tem na

eficácia da colonoscopia, em função do tempo de cada exame, da percentagem de deteção de lesões e do custo, e essa análise não foi efetuada. De facto, apesar de o ensino personalizado poder melhorar a qualidade da preparação intestinal, esta estratégia obriga a encargos acrescidos, uma vez que exige a intervenção de um profissional de saúde por um tempo prolongado, e esse preço real não foi determinado. Para se tirarem conclusões fidedignas teria de ser confrontado com a eventual diminuição de custos, originada pela melhoria da preparação, ao aumentar a deteção de lesões permitindo um aumento dos intervalos Branched chain aminotransferase de vigilância, uma diminuição do número de exames de controlo e um alívio na sobrecarga das listas de espera dos serviços. Em conclusão, estes resultados sugerem que o ensino personalizado poderá ter importância na melhoria da qualidade da preparação intestinal na colonoscopia. Por ser um resultado preliminar, a generalização dos resultados ainda é incerta, pelo que, de momento, não podemos recomendar esta estratégia em todos os doentes. No entanto, em grupos selecionados, esta medida poderá ter um impacto positivo, justificando-se assim a sua utilização na prática clínica.

idfwds2015.com Nizo Dairy Conference 29 September – 1 October 2015 Papendal, The Netherlands Internet: www.nizodairyconference.com Full-size table U0126 purchase Table options View in workspace Download as CSV “
“Over the years, the World Health Organization (WHO) and United Nations Children’s Fund (UNICEF) have recognized breastfeeding

as the most cost-effective, health-promoting, and disease-preventing strategy across the globe [1] and [2]. Given the overwhelming evidence of the importance of breastfeeding in reducing child mortality and morbidity, especially in developing countries, breastfeeding remains at the core of achieving millennium development goals 4 and 5 [3]. Unfortunately though, 1.4 million child deaths and a further 44 million disability-adjusted life years experienced in low-income and middle-income countries are attributable to suboptimal breastfeeding [4]. The benefits of breastfeeding to the health and development of the child as well as the

mother have been well documented [5], [6], [7], [8] and [9]. Research reviews have highlighted various physical, motor, cognitive, and psychosocial advantages that breast milk offers to the child [7] and [9]. Breast milk boosts a child’s immune system through protection from infection, it is a protective factor against obesity and other adult diseases such as diabetes and hypertension, and it saves money that might be used in buying breast milk substitutes. High child malnutrition rates and poor living environments characterized by unhygienic conditions and contaminated drinking water are common in developing Antidiabetic Compound Library purchase countries. These conditions increase the risk of child infection, thus exacerbating the negative effects of not breastfeeding [3], [7] and [10]. Breastfeeding enhances the bond between the child and mother, a prerequisite for normal child development. Furthermore, breastfeeding mothers enjoy benefits such as reduced postpartum bleeding, early

uterine involution, delayed resumption of the menstrual cycle (and hence birth spacing), reduced risks of breast and endometrial cancer, and lessened risk of bone remineralization (which in turn reduces the risk of hip fractures in older age). The global strategy for infant and young children feeding provides the roadmap toward achieving optimal child feeding practices BCKDHA [2]. The Kenyan government has adopted this strategy, and breastfeeding is among 11 prioritized high-impact nutrition interventions for child survival and development [11]. Among other guidelines, it is recommended that the newborn has skin-to-skin contact with the mother and start breastfeeding within 1 hour after birth [12]. This practice helps in bonding the dyad, stimulates production of colostrum milk that has high immunological benefit to the child, and also aids contraction of the mother’s womb for faster expulsion of the placenta and reduced risk of heavy bleeding.

, 1979b and Pepys

et al., 1997) and the clinical objective of the present GMP SAP preparation was to provide material for routine clinical SAP scintigraphy in the National Amyloidosis Centre. We therefore confirmed that trace radiolabeled GMP SAP was cleared in mice in vivo Tanespimycin at precisely the same rate as a non‐GMP preparation of human SAP isolated in our laboratory ( Fig. 4). Furthermore both the GMP and the non‐GMP SAP preparations localized to the same extent in the amyloidotic organs of mice with systemic AA amyloidosis. On this basis, we proceeded to use the GMP SAP for clinical scanning in patients with known or suspected amyloidosis and it has so far been deployed for this purpose in over 10,000 individuals with excellent results and no adverse effects whatsoever. Typical images are shown in Fig. 5. In four independent experiments (Table 1 and Table 2, Fig. 6 and Fig. 7)) each using PBMC from four donors (15 different donors in total since one donor donated blood for both experiments 1 and 3), neither CRP (at up to 100 μg/mL with 11 donors in 3 independent experiments), nor SAP (at up to 100 μg/mL with 4 donors in one experiment and up to 75 μg/mL

with 4 donors in one other experiment) stimulated release of TNFα, IL‐6, IL‐8, IL‐1β and IL‐10 above background values; IL‐1β and IL‐10 were measured only in response to SAP in experiment 4. In contrast, H 89 endotoxin stimulated dose‐dependent cytokine release from the PBMC of all donors (Table 1 and Table 2). CRP and SAP did not significantly enhance endotoxin mediated cytokine release, nor did they interfere in any of the cytokine assays; even at 100 μg/mL of each pentraxin, the assays gave endotoxin spike recoveries of 86-182% (Table 1 and Table 2). The murine acute phase proteins, SAP and SAA, respond with exquisite sensitivity to endotoxin and

all other toxic and pro‐inflammatory materials which have been tested (Pepys et al., 1979a, Pepys et al., 2005, Pepys and Baltz, 1983, Poole et al., 1984 and Poole et al., 1986). However very high dose, ~ 30 mg/kg, intravenous bolus injections of neither GMP SAP nor GMP CRP stimulated an acute response (Table 3). This is consistent with our extensive previous experience in mice and rats receiving even higher doses of highly purified non‐GMP pentraxin Protein kinase N1 preparations which were free of endotoxin contamination. It is also consistent with the present finding that neither of the pentraxin preparations stimulated cytokine release by human peripheral blood mononuclear cells in vitro. The function of a human plasma protein in humans can be definitively established by studying individuals with genetic deficiency or abnormality of the protein, by investigating effects of a specific intervention which persistently depletes the protein in question, or, possibly, by administering a highly purified preparation of the intact isolated protein.

, 2001 and Gwack et al., 2007). Therefore, we assessed whether DON exerts NFAT translocation in primary mouse thymocytes. As shown in Fig. 7, DON induced a rapid translocation of NFAT to the nucleus selleck kinase inhibitor within 1 h. In order to confirm the expression profiles provided by the microarray analysis, four genes were selected for expression analysis by quantitative RT-PCR. Genes were selected on basis of a key role in either T cell activation, negative selection, or ER stress response: CD86, CD80, Ccl4, and ATF3. The expression patterns of these genes as assessed by quantitative RT-PCR were very similar

to those provided by the microarray analysis (Fig. 8). This study shows the in vivo effects of

DON on gene expression in mouse thymus cells. Biological interpretation of the gene expression profiles confirmed some already known pathways of DON toxicity but also put forward yet unknown modes of action. Our results clearly indicate that DON induces a T cell activation response, which is rapidly followed by apoptosis and depletion of thymocytes similarly to the process of negative selection of precursor thymocytes with self-recognition. This is in agreement with the thymus being the most sensitive Selleckchem Sunitinib target organ for DON exposure. A high number of genes were significantly affected after 3 h of exposure at all doses used. For the 5 and 10 mg/kg bw dose groups, the number of affected genes was considerably reduced after 6 h, while only a small number of genes was still affected after 24 h. This indicates that the effects of 5 and 10 mg/kg DON were reversible. The limited period of DON toxicity is likely related to the previously described rapid metabolization and clearance of DON (Pestka, 2007 and Amuzie et al., 2008). In mice treated with 5 mg/kg bw DON, concentrations have been reported to reach a maximum in plasma and tissues within 15–30 min and to be reduced by 75–90% after 120 min already

(Amuzie et al., 2008). The number of affected genes induced by 25 mg/kg DON remained constant over time, indicating that this dose induces an irreversible Phospholipase D1 effect, at least during a period of 24 h. DON stimulated within 3 h the expression of many genes that are also activated during the T cell activation response. This conclusion is partly based on the similarity of our data with those on T lymphocytes that were activated with either PMA and IL2 or a combination of cytokines (Feske et al., 2001 and Shaffer et al., 2001). These gene sets include calcium influx-dependent and NFkB target genes (Fig. 3A). Normally, T cell activation is induced by binding of the T cell receptor to an antigen. This induces depletion of the endoplasmatic reticulum calcium stores, which activates NFkB and evokes a larger calcium influx across the plasma membrane through calcium transporters.

1067G > A (p.G356D). This mutation has previously been reported in other FOP variant patients [7] and [25]. The R206H mutation may cause all three clinical types of FOP including classic FOP, FOP-plus and FOP variants. In this large patient series, all classic FOP and FOP-plus patients and one FOP variant carried the R206H mutation. Two FOP variant cases had non-R206H mutations. This phenomenon is consistent with a previous report [7] which only detected

non-R206H mutations in variant FOP patients. None of the 98 unaffected controls, including parents and siblings, had mutations in ACVR1. Penetrance of the ACVR1/ALK2 mutation was 100%. The parents of the FOP patients could recall the onset and features of flare-ups in all cases. In this study, the onset of FOP was considered to be the time when the first spontaneous flare-up appeared or the first HO lesion emerged after trauma. Sixty-nine percent of patients (50/72 cases) experienced the spontaneous www.selleckchem.com/products/fg-4592.html onset of flare-ups. Thirty-six percent of patients (18/50 cases) experienced the spontaneous onset of a flare-up prior to two years of age; 58% of patients (29/50 cases) experienced the spontaneous onset of a flare-up between two and ten years of age; and 6% of patients (3/50 cases) experienced the spontaneous onset of a flare-up after age 10.

There selleckchem was no significant difference between male and female patient’s distributions among various onset ages (Table 2). No patient with spontaneous onset of FOP had any premonitory signs or symptoms prior to the onset of a flare-up. The signs and symptoms accompanying the onset of a flare-up were different at different anatomic sites. If the flare-up was in the head, neck or trunk, the onset was usually acute with large painless or painful soft masses appearing within twelve hours. If the flare-up involved the extremities, patients were more likely to have had focal pain with decreased range of motion as their check initial complaint, with or without the appearance of soft tissue swelling. Fifty-two percent of patients (26/50 cases) who experienced spontaneous onset of flare-ups presented with soft tissue swellings in the occipital region. Typically, as one mass subsided,

another one emerged and sequentially spread toward the back of the neck and trunk. Most masses eventually ossified, but some resolved completely. Twenty-three of the 26 patients who had spontaneous occipital masses had radiographic evidence of HO in the occipital and posterior neck regions at the first visit to our clinic, but three of the 26 patients who had reported flare-ups in the occipital region had no radiographic evidence of HO in the occipital region, although these three patients had HO at other sites where intercurrent flare-ups had occurred. Forty percent of patients (20/50 cases) with spontaneous onset of FOP presented with soft tissue swelling or focal edema in the neck, back, trunk or shoulder, and all of the soft tissue masses become ossified.

, 2010). The BOGUAY genome includes putative genes for inorganic carbon fixation via both RuBisCO and the reductive tricarboxylic acid cycle (rTCA), as well as for organic acid uptake. No genes indicative of methylotrophy

were found. The genome also appears to encode a complete oxidative tricarboxylic acid cycle, with no evidence for a glyoxylate bypass. Details are discussed in the following sections. The BOGUAY genome contains an ORF encoding a possible Entinostat Form II RuBisCO (00369_1655) and a complete set of genes for the Calvin/Benson/Bassham (CBB) cycle (Table S4), except that the phosphoglycerate kinase gene gltA is split between two ORFs (00163_0998, 0999).

No genes encoding the fructose 1,6-bisphosphatase or sedoheptulose 1,7-bisphosphatase of the standard CBB cycle could be found. Orange Guaymas Beggiatoaceae may instead use the possibly more Selleckchem SAHA HDAC energy-efficient variant suggested for gammaproteobacterial endosymbionts of the gutless marine oligochaete Olavius algarvensis and some hydrothermal vent clams and worms ( Kleiner et al., 2012), employing the reversible fructose 1,6-bisphosphatase, sedoheptulose 1,7-bisphosphatase, and phosphoribulokinase activities of pyrophosphate (PPi)-dependent 6-phosphofructokinase, as characterized for the Methylococcus capsulatus Bath ( Reshetnikov et al., 2008) enzyme. This is related to one of the two putative BOGUAY amino acid sequences (BOGUAY 00127_3135; Fig. S2A). Comparison of the phylogenetic positions of CBB-cycle genes from the relatively complete marine BOGUAY and freshwater B. alba genomes and the incomplete BgP one suggests that most of them have been transmitted vertically within the

Beggiatoaceae and related gammaproteobacterial lineages, with any horizontal transfers either ancient or between close relatives (Fig. S3). The exceptions are RuBisCO itself and one of the two potential PPi-dependent 6-phosphofructokinases. There is abundant evidence for horizontal transfer of RuBisCO genes among bacteria (e.g. they are often found on plasmids Kusian and Bowien, 1997). The SB-3CT putative BOGUAY Form II RuBisCO is most closely related to those from several Rhodospirillaceae (Alphaproteobacteria) ( Fig. 4A). The BgP genome encodes a Form I RuBisCO more closely related to known and inferred betaproteobacterial proteins ( Fig. 4B), while the B. alba Form I enzymes appears to have a mixed alpha- and betaproteobacterial lineage ( Fig. 4C). The closest relative of the BOGUAY sequence to date is the predicted Form II RuBisCO from Magnetospirillum gryphiswaldense, a freshwater magnetotactic bacterium which can grow autotrophically or heterotrophically with sulfur oxidation ( Geelhoed et al., 2010).