HCV NS3 and NS5B proteins were detected using rabbit NS3 (R212) polyclonal antibody or anti-NS5B (5B14) monoclonal antibody. Beta-actin was detected using an actin monoclonal antibody (Sigma, St. Louis, MO, USA). Quantification of HCV RNA was performed using real-time reverse transcription polymerase chain reaction (qRT-PCR) based on TaqMan chemistry using the forward Talazoparib research buy primer R6-130-S17

(nucleotides 130–146), 5′-CGGGAGAGCCATAGTGG-3′; the reverse primer R6-290-R19 (nucleotides 290–272), 5′-AGTACCACAAGGCCTTTCG-3′; and the Taq-Man probe R6-148-S21FT (nucleotides 148–168), 5′-FAM-CTGCGGAACCGGTGAGTACAC-TAMRA3′, as described previously (Takeuchi et al., 1999). HCV RNA was extracted from PYC-treated, persistently-infected JFH-1/K4 HCV cells, using the ISOGEN RNA extraction kit (Nippon Gene, Japan). We produced chimeric mice by transplanting human primary hepatocytes into severe combined immunodeficient mice carrying a urokinase plasminogen activator transgene controlled by the albumin promoter (Mercer et al., 2001 and Tateno et al., 2004). All animals received humane care according to National Institute of Health criteria

outlined in the Guide for Care and Use of Laboratory Animals. The hepatocytes were infected with HCV-G9 (genotype 1a) (Inoue et al., 2007). HCV 1a RNA levels reached 2.9–18.0 × 106 copies/mL in mice sera after 1–2 months of infection. PYC (40 mg/kg) was administered AT13387 datasheet intraperitoneally once daily. PEG-IFN (30 μg/kg) was administered subcutaneously at 0, 3, 7, and 10 days either alone or in combination with PYC. Each treated group contained at least 3 chimeric mice. HCV RNA was purified from 2 μL chimeric mouse serum using SepaGene RV-R (Sanko Junyaku Co., Ltd., Tokyo, Japan). HCV

RNA levels were quantified using qRT-PCR as reported previously (Takeuchi et al., 1999). Formation of ROS in the HuH-7 cell-based HCV-replicon-harbouring cell line (R6FLR-N), and in R6FLR-N cured of HCV by interferon treatment (Blight et al., 2002) was measured using the OxiSelect ROS assay kit (Cell Biolabs, San Diego, CA, USA) according to the manufacturer’s Flavopiridol (Alvocidib) instructions. Duplicate samples at 1 × 107 cells/mL from each culture were then incubated with dichlorodihydrofluorescein DiOxyQ (DCFH-DiOxyQ). Under these conditions, ROS species rapidly oxidise DCFH into the highly fluorescent 2′, 7′-dichlorodihydrofluorescein (DCF). Fluorescence intensity, which is proportional to the total ROS levels in the sample, was measured with a fluorescence spectrophotometer reader at 480-nm excitation and 530-nm emission. Data are presented as means ± standard error of triplicate experiments. Data were analysed using Kruskal–Wallis test and Mann–Whitney U tests. A p-value <0.05 was considered statistically significant.

SW1353 cells (human chondrosarcoma cell line) purchased from the American type culture collection OTX015 solubility dmso (Manassas, VA, USA) were cultured and treated with IL-1β according to previously described procedures [12]. In brief, the cells were maintained in DMEM with 10% FBS, glutamine, and penicillin/streptomycin. To induce MMP-13, IL-1β (10 ng/mL) with/without test compounds was added to the cells in serum-free DMEM for 24 h. MMP-13 released in the media was examined by

Western blotting analysis using anti-MMP-13 antibody. All test compounds were initially dissolved in dimethyl sulfoxide (DMSO) and diluted with serum-free DMEM to adjust the final DMSO concentration to 0.1% (v/v). Cell viability was checked using MTT bioassay [13]. No effect on cell viability or the MMP-13 expression level was observed by the treatment of 0.1% DMSO. Using total cellular lysate, expression and phosphorylation of MAPKs and STAT-1/-2 were examined. Total cellular protein was extracted with Pro-Prep solution (iNtRON Biotechnology, Kyungki-Do, Korea) containing 1mM phenylmethylsulfonyl fluoride (PMSF), 1mM sodium orthovanadate, and 1mM sodium fluoride. Expression of nuclear transcription factor-κB (NF-κB) p65, c-Jun, and c-Fos was identified in nuclear fractions. For an extraction of nuclear proteins, cells were resuspended in 400 μL of buffer

A (10mM HEPES, pH 7.9, 10mM KCl, 0.1mM EDTA, 1mM DTT, 0.5mM PMSF, 1 μg/mL aprotinin, and 1 μg/mL leupeptin) www.selleckchem.com/products/cobimetinib-gdc-0973-rg7420.html and incubated on ice for 10 min. After 25 μL of 10% NP-40 was added, cells were vortexed for 10 sec and centrifuged at 2,500 g for 2 min. The nuclear pellet was vigorously vortexed in buffer B (20mM HEPES, pH 7.9, 0.4M NaCl, 1mM EDTA, 1mM DTT, 1mM PMSF, 1 μg/mL aprotinin, and 1 μg/mL leupeptin) and centrifuged at 16,000 g for 10 min. BCA protein assay (Pierce, IL, USA) was used to determine protein concentration in the nuclear fraction. Proteins were separated, blotted, and visualized as described

Phloretin above. According to the previously described procedures [12], articular cartilages were excised from the femoral condyles of rabbit knee and incubated in DMEM containing 5% FBS for 1–2 days. In addition, approximately 30 mg cartilage fragments per well were incubated in DMEM containing 1% FBS in 400 μL/well. Cartilages were treated with 10 ng/mL of human IL-1α (Sigma–Aldrich) in the presence or absence of test compounds for 3 days. The amounts of released GAG in the supernatant were measured with a Blyscan sulfated GAG assay kit (Biocolor, Carrickfergus, County Antrim, UK) based on dimethylmethylene blue assay, according to the manufacturer’s protocol. Experimental values are represented as arithmetic mean ± standard deviation. Statistical analysis was evaluated using one-way analysis of variance followed by Dunnett’s analysis (IBM SPSS Statistics, Version 21, IBM Korea). A p < 0.05 was considered significantly different.

By the early 1800s, hunters stationed at Russian colonies, extending from coastal Siberia across the Komandorski, Aleutian, Kodiak, and Pribilof archipelagos and into southern Alaska, had depleted much of the sea otter population in the North Pacific. In searching for new regions that supported sizeable populations of profitable sea mammals, along with other commercially exploitable resources,

the RAC began making plans to extend its colonial reach southward into Alta California (Lightfoot, 2003:15–17). The earliest inroads the RAC made in exploiting the substantial E. lutris populations in Alta and Baja California were made jointly with American merchants between 1803 and 1812. They initiated a “contract” PCI-32765 research buy hunting system in which the Americans provided the ships to sail southward into California waters, while the RAC allocated the hunters to harvest the sea mammals. The latter were highly skilled indigenous huntsman from

the Aleutian Islands, Kodiak Island, and Prince William Sound, who were the backbone of the Russian fur trade enterprise in the North Pacific. American skippers transported the Native Alaskan hunters, selleck screening library along with their harpoons, skin boats (baidarkas), and other gear, to California waters where they successfully participated in at least 11 joint hunts ( Table 1), with the pelts split evenly between the Russian and American merchants ( Khlebnikov, 1994:8–10). In 1808 and 1811, the RAC sent its own boats, crews, and native hunters to Alta California to harvest sea otters, as well as Glutathione peroxidase to scout for possible places to establish a permanent colony in Alta California.

The Russians returned to northern California in 1812 to found the Ross Colony, which served as the base of operation for Russian sea otter hunts in California (Fig. 1). It also served as an agrarian enterprise for growing food for Russian colonists in Alaska, as well as a mercantile center for trading with Spanish-Mexican California, particularly with the Franciscan missionaries who had extensive surpluses of grain and meat that the RAC purchased as foodstuffs for its North Pacific outposts (Farris, 2012). With the founding of the Ross Colony two kinds of hunting expeditions took place in Alta and Baja California. One involved teams of Native Alaskans in their baidarkas sweeping the waters north of the Russian settlements to Trinidad Bay and south along the Sonoma and Marin county coasts ( Fig. 1). They also portaged skin boats over to San Pablo and San Francisco Bays to harvest substantial sea otter populations from these interior waters ( Ogden, 1933:40). The other expeditions involved the use of Russian ships that carried the Native Alaskan hunters, skin boats, and hunting equipment to more distant waters in southern California and Baja California where sea otters thrived.

Hillslope failure, river channel widening, and/or construction activity may mobilize sediment from deeper (i.e., meters) sources. Aeolian deposition may be a third source, although

no evidence supports aeolian deposition as a significant source to the rivers studied here. The relative contributions from these sources may change both temporally and spatially in a river. These changes allow only limited PD-1/PD-L1 inhibitor conclusions to be drawn from a single data point, limiting the success of a mitigation effort that is applied uniformly across a watershed. Contemporary sediment sources are frequently augmented and supplemented by legacy sediment. Legacy sediment comes from anthropogenic sources and activities, such as disturbances in land use/cover and/or surficial processes (James, 2013). For rivers, legacy sediments can originate from incised floodplains (Walter and Merritts, 2008), impoundments behind dams (Merritts et al., 2011), increased hillslope erosion due to historic deforestation (DeRose et al., 1993 and Jennings et al., 2003), and anthropogenic activities

such as construction VX770 and land use changes (Wolman and Schick, 1967 and Croke et al., 2001). Legacy sediment can also deliver high loads of contaminants to river systems (Cave et al., 2005 and Lecce et al., 2008). The current supply of sediment is high (Hooke, 2000), as humans are one of the greatest current geomorphic agents. Consequently, combining legacy sediment with increased anthropogenic geomorphic activity makes it even more important to identify the source of sediments in rivers. Sediment sources can be distinguished Sulfite dehydrogenase using the radionuclides lead-210 (210Pb) and cesium-137 (137Cs). 210Pb is a naturally-occurring isotope resulting from the decay of 238Uranium in rock to eventually 222Radon. This gas diffuses into the atmosphere and decays into excess 210Pb, which eventually settles to the ground. This diffusion process creates a fairly consistent level of excess 210Pb in

the atmosphere and minimizes local differences that exist in the production of radon. Rain and settling can subsequently result in the deposition of excess 210Pb, with a half-life of 22.3 years. This atmospheric deposition of excess 210Pb, is added to the background levels that originate from the decay of radon in the soil. “Excess” atmospheric 210Pb occurs because, if the material (in this case the sediment) is isolated from the source (i.e., the atmosphere), this level will decay and decrease in activity. As this excess 210Pb is then correlated with the time of surficial exposure, it is commonly used as a sediment tracer (e.g., D’Haen et al., 2012, Foster et al., 2007, Whiting et al., 2005 and Matisoff et al., 2002). 137Cs is also used as a sediment tracer, although its source is different. It is the byproduct of nuclear fission through reactors and weapon activities, and is not naturally found in the world.

Thus, in 8 years non-native Phragmites sequestered Rapamycin mouse roughly half a year’s worth of the Platte River’s DSi load, beyond what native willow would have done. This result indicates a significant increase in ASi sequestered in sediments – and corresponding decrease in Si flowing downstream – as compared to bare sediments or the more recent native willow sediments that contain far less ASi. Will ASi deposition and sediment fining wrought by Phragmites in the Platte River be stable through time, and eventually become part of the geologic record? There is, of course, no way

of knowing what will happen to these particular deposits. However, the proxies of invasion studied here – biogenic silica and particle size – are widely used in geology to identify various kinds of environmental or ecological change (see, Veliparib datasheet for example, Conley, 1988, Maldonado

et al., 1999 and Ragueneau et al., 1996). Therefore, if conditions are right for preserving and lithifying these sediments, then these signatures of invasion would persist. This study highlights the fact that geomorphologists, geochemists, and ecologists have a lot to learn from each other as they work together to investigate the tremendous scope of environmental change promulgated by human activities. In the example presented here, physical transport of particles is not independent of chemistry, because some particles (like ASi) are bioreactive and may even be produced by plants within the river system. Similarly, elemental fluxes through rivers or other reservoirs are often unwittingly changed by physical alterations of systems. We encourage others to design studies that highlight: (i) physical changes to river systems, like damming or flow reduction from agricultural diversions and evaporative loss, leading to biological

change; and (ii) biological changes in river systems, for example introductions of invasive species, that alter sediment and elemental fluxes to estuaries and coastal oceans. Results from the Platte River demonstrate that non-native Phragmites both transforms dissolved silica into particulate silica and physically sequesters those particles at a much higher rate than Plasmin native vegetation and unvegetated sites in the same river. Future work will be aimed at disentangling the biochemical and physical components, so that our conceptual framework can be applied to other river systems with different types of vegetation. In addition, high-resolution LiDAR will be used to measure annual erosion and deposition in order to better estimate system-wide rates of Si storage. Scientists are encouraged to look for similar opportunities to study several aspects of environmental change within a single ‘experiment’ because of the benefits such an open-minded, interdisciplinary approach can have towards assessing anthropogenic change.

, 2009); however, recent studies in murine models of asthma have suggested that AE might have a possible anti-inflammatory effect on chronic allergy airway inflammation (Pastva et al., 2004, Vieira

et al., 2007, Vieira et al., 2011 and Silva et al., 2010). Our group and others have shown some effects Ceritinib price of AE on chronic allergic lung inflammation (Pastva et al., 2004, Vieira et al., 2007, Vieira et al., 2008, Vieira et al., 2011 and Silva et al., 2010). However, many criticisms have been raised concerning the mouse model of asthma involving the use of ovalbumin. Wenzel and Holgate (2006) suggest that mouse models of asthma provide insights into immunologic processes but have shortcomings that continue to limit the understanding and treatment of human asthma. Several reasons are given as limitations: (i) mouse models of asthma require artificial intra-peritoneal allergen sensitization and adjunctive stimulation and provoke a systematic learn more rather than a

pulmonary allergic sensitization, which can even extend to include cardiovascular effects (Bice et al., 2000); (ii) the site of inflammation is mainly located in the parenchyma and the lung vascular vessels instead of the airways as occurs in human asthma (Wenzel and Holgate, 2006); and (iii) mice have lower levels of eosinophils in the airways following antigen challenge compared to guinea pigs and humans with asthma (Korsgren et al., 1997). Our results showed that sensitized guinea pigs submitted to AE training had a reduction in eosinophil migration as well as in the migration of lymphocytes to the airways,

which reinforced previous studies showing that AE reduces eosinophilic inflammation in mouse models of asthma (Pastva et al., 2004 and Vieira et al., 2007). However, the reduction in lymphocyte migration to the airways following AE was previously unknown and is interesting because lymphocytes orchestrate eosinophilic migration. To better understand the effect of AE on reducing eosinophilic migration, we quantified the expression of Th2 cytokines. The results show that AE reversed the OVA-induced expression of IL-4 and IL-13, suggesting an important effect of AE on the pro-inflammatory cytokines involved in Immune system allergic airway inflammation. Despite the fact that AE has been shown to reduce IL-4 expression in mouse studies (Pastva et al., 2004, Vieira et al., 2007, Vieira et al., 2008 and Vieira et al., 2011), this is the first study in guinea pigs to show that AE can also reduce the expression of IL-13. IL-13 is an important interleukin in the pathophysiology of asthma that modulates eosinophilic inflammation and mucus hypersecretion (Zhu et al., 1999). In addition, a study by Willis-Karp et al. demonstrated that these pro-asthmatic effects of IL-13 are independent of IgE production (Wills-Karp et al., 1998).

The CD14+ monocytes (1 × 106 cells) were stimulated with ginsenoside fractions at a concentration of 0 μg/mL, 1 μg/mL, and 10 μg/mL in the presence or absence of LPS (50 ng/mL). The cells were washed with cold PBS and lysed in cold radioimmunoprecipitation assay lysis buffer containing 50mM Tris-HCl, pH 8, 150mM sodium chloride, 1% NP-40, 0.5% ZD1839 sodium deoxycholate, 0.1% sodium dodecyl sulfate (SDS), a protease inhibitor cocktail

(Roche, Mannheim, Germany), 2mM sodium fluoride, 0.1mM sodium orthovanadate, and 2mM glycerol phosphate. Insoluble material was removed by centrifugation at 22,000 × g for 10 min at 4°C. The protein concentration was determined using the Bio-Rad Protein Assay Kit (Bio-Rad Laboratories, Hercules, CA, USA). The lysates were separated by SDS-polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis (PAGE) and transferred to a polyvinylidene difluoride microporous

membrane (Amersham Biosciences, Piscataway, NJ, USA). ATM Kinase Inhibitor mouse The membranes were blocked at room temperature for 1 h with 3% bovine serum albumin (BSA) in tris-buffered saline (TBS) containing 0.1% Tween 20 prior to probing with a primary antibody for the nonphosphorylated or phosphorylated forms of MAPKs or mouse anti-β-actin. Primary antibodies were detected using goat antimouse IgG-HRP or mouse antirabbit IgG-HRP antibodies. They were visualized with an enhanced chemiluminescence system (GE Healthcare, Buckinghamshire, UK), after the membrane had been extensively washed with TBS containing 0.1% Tween 20. For the MAPK signaling inhibition test, the cells were pretreated for 1 h with 20μM SP600125 (i.e., JNK inhibitor) and 10μM U0126 (i.e., MAPK inhibitor) prior

to being treated with ginsenoside fractions. The CD14+ monocytes were seeded into a 24-well plate Thalidomide at a density of 1 × 106 cells/mL in RPMI complete media containing GM-CSF and IL-4. The cells were then treated with ginsenoside fractions for 3 d or 5 d. In an additional experiment, immature DCs were stimulated with LPS (50 ng/mL) in the presence or absence of the ginsenoside fractions. The cells were then harvested and stained with an appropriate combination of antihuman-CD80-PE, anti-CD86-APC, anti-CD40-FITC, anti-CD14-FITC, anti-CD11c-APC, and anti-HLA-DR-FITC antibodies. After staining for 25 min at 4°C, the cells were washed three times, and differences in the expression of cell surface molecules were analyzed by a flow cytometer (BD FACScalibur; BD Biosciences) with CellQuest software (BD Biosciences). All flow cytometric data were analyzed by FlowJo software (Tree Star, San Carlos, CA, USA). The CD14+ monocytes were seeded onto a 24-well plate at a density of 1 × 106 cells/mL in RPMI complete media containing GM-CSF and IL-4. The cells were treated with ginsenoside fractions for 5 d and then harvested and stained with anti-Annexin V antibody and propidium iodide (PI).

1772). Five different human activities are identified as potential early anthropogenic methane inputs: (1) generating human waste; (2) tending

methane-emitting (i.e. belching and flatulence) livestock; (3) animal waste; (4) burning seasonal grass biomass; and (5) irrigating rice paddies (Ruddiman and Thomson, 2001 and Ruddiman et al., 2008, p. 1292). Of these, inefficient wet rice agriculture is identified as the most plausible major source of increased anthropogenic methane input to the atmosphere. Anaerobic fermentation of organic ATM Kinase Inhibitor matter in flooded rice fields produces methane, which is released into the atmosphere through the roots and stems of rice plants (see Neue, 1993). While Ruddiman and Thomson do not employ the specific term “Anthropocene” in their discussion, they push back the onset of human impact on the earth’s atmosphere to 5000 B.P., and label the time span from 5000 up to the industrial revolution as the “early anthropogenic era” Ruddiman and Thomson (2001, Figure 3). Following its initial presentation in 2001, William Ruddiman has expanded and refined the “early anthropogenic era” hypothesis in a series of articles (Ruddiman, 2003, Ruddiman, 2004, Ruddiman, 2005a, Ruddiman, 2005b, Ruddiman, 2006, Ruddiman, 2007, Ruddiman et al., 2008 and Ruddiman and Ellis, 2009). In 2008, for example, Ruddiman and Chinese collaborators

(Ruddiman et al., 2008) offer additional support for the early anthropogenic CH4 hypothesis Ceritinib manufacturer by looking at another test Anidulafungin (LY303366) implication

or marker of the role of wet rice agriculture as a methane input. The number and geographical extent of archeological sites in China yielding evidence of rice farming is compiled in thousand year intervals from 10,000–4000 B.P., and a dramatic increase is documented in the number and spatial distribution of rice farming settlements after 5000 B.P. (Ruddiman et al., 2008, p. 1293). This increase in rice-based farming communities after 5000 B.P. across the region of China where irrigated rice is grown today suggests a dramatic early spread of wet rice agriculture. In a more recent and more comprehensive study of the temporal and spatial expansion of wet rice cultivation in China, Fuller et al. (2011, p. 754) propose a similar timeline for anthropogenic methane increase, concluding that: “the growth in wet rice lands should produce a logarithmic growth in methane emissions significantly increasing from 2500 to 2000 BC, but especially after that date”. Fuller et al. also make an initial effort to model the global expansion of cattle pastoralism in the same general time span (3000–1000 BC), and suggest that: “during this period the methane from livestock may have been at least as important an anthropogenic methane source as rice” (2011, p. 756).

Sometimes the right conditions are present to enable us to directly observe these changes and postulate how they might manifest themselves in BMS754807 the geologic record. This study of the Platte River demonstrates that non-native Phragmites has the capacity to both transform dissolved silica into particulate silica and physically sequester those particles due to the plant’s local reduction of flow velocity. In other words, its presence is being physically and biochemically

inscribed in sedimentation rates, sediment character, and ASi content. Might we look at these proxies back in time, in other locales, to see if previous ecological disturbances have left similar – if fainter – records? This study was funded by the National Science Foundation Division of Earth Sciences, award #1148130 and the John S. Kendall Center for Engaged Learning at Gustavus Adolphus College (Research, Scholarship and Creativity grant, 2010). We are indebted to Rich Walters (The Nature Conservancy), Jason Farnsworth (Platte River Recovery and Implementation Program) and the Audubon Society’s Rowe Sanctuary for site access and logistical support. Dr. Julie Bartley, Dr. Jeff Jeremiason and Bob Weisenfeld (Gustavus Adolphus College) generously provided ideas

and technical assistance. Zach Wagner, Emily Seelen, Zach Van Orsdel, check details Emily Ford, Rachel Mohr, Tara Selly, and Todd Kremmin (Gustavus Adolphus College) gave substantial assistance to this work. “
“Watershed

deforestation over the last two millennia led to the rapid expansion and morphological diversification of the Danube delta (Fig. 1) coupled with a complete transformation of the ecosystem in the receiving marine basin, the Black Sea (Giosan et al., 2012). During this period the central wave-dominated lobe of Sulina was slowly abandoned and the southernmost arm of the Danube, the St. George, was reactivated and started to build its second wave-dominated delta lobe at the open coast. Simultaneously, secondary distributaries branching off from the St. George branch built the Dunavatz bayhead lobe into the southern Razelm lagoon (Fig. Alectinib research buy 1). This intense deltaic activity accompanied drastic changes in Danube’s flow regime. Many small deltas had grown during intervals of enhanced anthropogenic pressure in their watersheds (Grove and Rackham, 2001 and Maselli and Trincardi, 2013). However, finding specific causes, whether natural or anthropogenic, for such a sweeping reorganization of a major delta built by a continental-scale river like Danube requires detailed reconstructions of its depositional history. Here we provide a first look at the Danube’s deltaic reorganization along its main distributary, the Chilia, and discuss potential links to hydroclimate, population growth and cultural changes in the watershed.

In our view, the main challenge is to find a balance between the rapid development of tourism activities and the preservation of the authentic socio-cultural elements of the ethnic minorities that make the area attractive for tourists in the first place. This research was part of the bilateral scientific project on ‘Land-use change under impact of socio-economic

development and its implications on environmental services in Vietnam’ funded by the Belgian Science Policy (BELSPO) (Grant SPP PS BL/10/V26) and the Vietnamese Ministry of Science & Technology (MOST) (Grant 42/2009/HĐ-NĐT). Patrick Meyfroidt, Isaline Jadin, Francois Clapuyt have provided valuable suggestions for this research project. We are thankful to all ministries and institutions

in Vietnam which provided the necessary data to undertake this research. We also thank village leaders and local people in Sa Pa district for facilitating DAPT mouse the field data collection, and the anonymous reviewers for their valuable input. “
“Excess river sediments can negatively impact both water quality and quantity. Excess sediment loads have been identified as a major cause of impairment (USEPA, 2007). Excess sediment indirectly affects water quality by transporting organic substances through adhesion. Excess sediment selleck chemical has the ability to directly decrease water quality as well. These negative effects include loss of water storage in reservoirs and behind dams (Walling, 2009), altered aquatic habitat (Cooper, 1992, Wood and Armitage, 1997 and Bunn and Arthington, 2002), and altered channel capacity and flooding regimes (Knox, 2006). Often, water quality measures are addressed through the establishment of total maximum daily loads (TMDLs). Sediment currently ranks as the fifth ranking cause of TMDLs, with pathogens listed first under the Clean Water Act (USEPA, 2012). The establishment of sediment TMDLs varies by state, however, with New Jersey, the location of the present study, having zero Janus kinase (JAK) listed rivers, while neighboring Pennsylvania has over 3500 instances of impairments from

sediment listed. The TMDL sets a benchmark for water quality criteria. In order to establish a benchmark, an understanding of source of the pollutant is often necessary (Collins et al., 2012a). Identifying the source of excess river sediment is critical for mitigation efforts. A background, or natural, amount of sediment in rivers exists as fluvial systems transport water and sediment across the landscape as part of the larger hydrologic and geologic systems. Human activities, however, alter and accelerate these natural processes. Knowing the origin of the excess sediment facilitates development of proper mitigation efforts. In many cases, sediment from a watershed can be categorized as originating from shallow, surficial sources or from deeper sources.