Panax quinquefolius ginsenosides are also mostly detected in the periderm and cortex of the root [37]. Recently, multicenter matrix-assisted laser desorption/ionization mass spectrometry imaging confirmed that ginsenosides were more highly concentrated in the cortex and the periderm than that in the medulla of a lateral root, and localization of ginsenosides in the root tip is higher than that in the pith of the root [38]. In addition, a quantitative difference was detected between localizations of PPD-type ginsenosides (Rb1, Rb2, or Rc) and

the PPT-type ginsenoside (Rf) in the root [38]. As saponins are known to be distributed to the root epidermis [34], we confirmed the accumulation of ginsenosides in the epidermis rather than the root body (J. Y.

Oh et al, unpublished). However, our data in other work showed that ginsenoside selleck biosynthesis genes are expressed in the root vasculature, such as phloem [18] and [39]. This controversial distribution and biosynthesis information led us to hypothesize that ginsenosides are produced in the root vasculature and then transported to the epidermis for a defensive role. To confirm this hypothesis, we selected MJ, known as a strong PI3K inhibitor effective elicitor, to stimulate the biosynthesis of ginsenoside in vivo. To improve the metabolite contents, some elicitors have been used to increase the expression and activities of key enzymes in the rate-limiting step of the biosynthetic pathway. MJ is a key signaling Ketotifen compound involved in the elicitation process, which leads to the accumulation of secondary metabolites [40]. Because ginsenosides are secondary metabolites in ginseng, the accumulation of these compounds is also controlled by the treatment of elicitors such as MJ and salicylic acid [41] and [42]. The total ginsenoside content increases approximately fourfold following

MJ treatment in suspension cultured adventitious roots [6]. Depending on the timing of MJ application, the adventitious roots appear to show different growth effects and ginsenoside production. It was shown from previous reports that the addition of MJ at the early phase of P. ginseng growth inhibits adventitious root growth [43]. Jasmonic acid (JA) also strongly inhibited ginseng hairy root growth. [23]. To prevent a reduced biomass of adventitious roots, mostly 10μM of MJ was used in adventitious root cultures of P. ginseng 4 wk after inoculation. Higher MJ concentration and extended cultivation time also showed effects on root growth [43] and [44]. According to previous studies, this elicitation effect of ginsenosides is attributable to an MJ-induced expression of ginsenoside biosynthetic genes [6] and [29].