, 1970). Humans express two heme oxygenases, namely, the constitutive HO-2, and the inducible HO-1 that responds to cellular and systemic stress and pro-inflammatory conditions. HOs play an

important physiological role in the turnover of haemoglobin, which is released upon degradation of senescent erythrocytes that takes place in the spleen, liver and kidney (Wagener et al., 2003). The breakdown products of haem catabolism selleck products are CO, biliverdin and iron. Endogenously produced CO has antioxidant and/or signalling functions that protect the cardiac, immune, respiratory and gastrointestinal mammalian systems (Wu & Wang, 2005; Kim et al., 2006; Ryter et al., 2006; Gullotta et al., 2012b). The role of CO in eukaryotes is not always beneficial and depends among several factors on the CO concentration produced and the type of cell where it acts (Gullotta et al., 2012b). Indeed, adverse CO-associated effects such as triggering Selleckchem Everolimus of the inflammatory response and apoptosis are also observed (Gullotta et al., 2012b). Moreover, high levels of CO in the human blood correlate with the severity of health disorders such as asthma, cystic fibrosis, diabetes, cardiac disease

and severe renal failure. Interestingly, the production of CO is reported to be higher in patients with bacterial infections (Zegdi et al., 2002; Foresti et al., 2008). Several aerobic and anaerobic bacteria use CO as a source of carbon and energy for growth (Ragsdale, 2004; Oelgeschlager & Rother, 2008). In all CO-metabolizing bacteria, the CO dehydrogenase (CODH) enzyme plays a key role (Ragsdale, 2004; Oelgeschlager & Rother, 2008). This enzyme catalyzes oxidation of CO to CO2, which is then transformed into cellular carbon by reductive CO2 fixation pathways, such as the Calvin–Benson–Bassham cycle, the reverse tricarboxylic acid cycle, the 3-hydropropionate cycle or the Wood–Ljunddahl pathway (Ragsdale, 2004). The respiratory processes that can be coupled to CO oxidation

are oxygen respiration, hydrogenogenesis, sulphate or sulphur respiration and carbonate respiration (Oelgeschlager & Rother, 2008). Bacteria have several CO sensors that trigger the expression of CODH, the best known being the haem-containing Tyrosine-protein kinase BLK transcriptional factor, CooA (Bonam et al., 1989; Roberts et al., 2001; Youn et al., 2004; Gullotta et al., 2012b). Whereas CooA seems to respond only to CO, other haem-based CO sensors such as FixLJ of Sinorhizobium meliloti, AxPDEA1 of Acetobacter xylinum, Dos of Escherichia coli and HemAT from Bacillus subtilis also bind oxygen (Table 1; Gilles-Gonzalez et al., 1994; Delgado-Nixon et al., 2000; Hou et al., 2000; Chang et al., 2001; Rodgers & Lukat-Rodgers, 2005). In Mycobacterium tuberculosis, the ligation of CO to the haem histidine kinases DosS and DosT induces the dormancy regulon, leading to a latent state that makes the bacterium unresponsive to drug therapy (Kumar et al., 2008).